Anthropology Optional Paper-I Section A by Sourabh Mishra

Model Answer

Question #1. Is culture unique to human beings? Discuss. (10 marks)

1. Herskovitz- Man and his works- Culture is the man made part of the environment. Wherever men reside, there is culture.

2. Why culture is unique to humans: 

• Leslie White- book- The evolution of culture: 5 factors

1. 1. Bipedalism and erect posture
   2. Stereoscopic vision
   3. Opposable thumb
   4. Intelligent Brain
   5. Ability to create symbolism- Religion

• The combination of above factors create a unique human experience that culminates in the formation of a culture.

3. Studies in ethology have shown hints of proto culture in non-human primates too. For example: 

1. Japanese macaques wash potatoes in water before eating them.
2. Koshima, a species of monkey in Japan separates wheat from sand by immersing it in water.
3. Social life and non verbal communication studied by Jane Goodall among Chimpanzees.
4. Washoe and Koko are examples of non-human primates who learnt American sign language.

4. But the level and contours of human culture is far more advanced than any other species

which is : 

1. Learned, gratifying, ideational, adaptive, transmitted via acculturation, etc and such aspects seem to be missing in the above examples.
2. And the presence of this culture is the dividing line between humans and animals.

Question 2#. Discuss the impact of urbanization and feminist movements on family in India.

Urbanization refers to the increase in the number of people that live in urban areas. This can happen by internal growth in urban areas, migration of the people living in rural areas to the urban areas, or by the expansion of the limits of urban areas by a change in boundaries and work culture shifting away from a predominantly agrarian setup. Over time, the society adapts to this change and this change impacts its basic units and institutions like the family, socio-political and economic institutions.

Every family as we already discussed has a definite role in a definite culture. Shift in the people from rural to urban setup can be a big cultural shift. Adaptation to this cultural shift results in a change in the role, composition, the structure of the family.

Changes, impact, and consequences of Urbanization: 

1. Change in residence to neo-local from patrilocal or matrilocal.
2. The urban areas are generally expected to have good infrastructure and health facilities.There is a general trend of increase in the life span of the members. Urban areas also have a high cost of living and space constraints. These factors result in declining fertility rates over time. Families tend to be small and grow slowly. 
3. There is an increasing trend of the formation of small nuclear families or partial families. Partial families are seen in two contexts. One among the elderly who tend to stay on their own after out-migration of children both in rural and urban areas. Among the younger population, there are families without children or families with a single parent are also quite common.
4. In the case of contemporary Japan, and many Southeast Asian countries, many couples prefer to be childless for the sake of affordability. Thus the evolution to an urban society is also frequently equated with a decline in the status of the family, and with a proliferation of nontraditional family forms and new types of households such as hostels, live-in partners, etc.
5. It has led to weakened kinship ties, due to an increase in the physical distance among kin members and omission of traditions due to the paucity of time. The Hindu joint family system has been broken up in some cases while in others it has adapted to the changes.
6. Altered gender relations and reduction in the authority of the head of the household. The weakening of emotional bonds has thus resulted in decreasing the responsibility of children towards their elders.
7. Altered socialization process and child-rearing practices where males also share the burden of child-rearing due to additional economic responsibilities on the females. There is a rise of external institutions like crèche facilities, schools, and colleges which take over the role of socialization of children and young adults.
8. Change in the value system itself is due to the increasing concentration of external agencies of socialization.
9. Rise of newer technologies and means to perpetuate family ( IVF, adoptions, surrogacy, etc) 

Feminism:

The term feminism can be used to describe a political, cultural, or economic movement aimed at establishing equal rights and legal protection for women. Although largely originating in the West, feminism is manifested worldwide and is represented by various institutions committed to activity on behalf of women’s rights and interests. Feminism incorporates the position that societies prioritize the male point of view, and that women are treated unfairly within those societies. Efforts to change include fighting gender stereotypes and seeking to establish educational and professional opportunities for women that are equal to those for men.

Impact on family: 

1. The ideology of feminism has encouraged women to move across the 4 walls of the house.
2. Complemented by urbanization and the trend towards nuclearization of family, there has been more participative and consensus-based decision making in households, as opined by Allen Rose and IP Desai. 
3. According to Veena Das, working women have demanded more voice in family affairs and have shunned the over dominance of males.
4. Feminism has led to many socio-economic reforms that have improved the social standing of women. For example, the Supreme Court recently allowed women to be coparceners whichallowed them to inherit ancestral property which used to be only inherited by the male heir.
5. Altered gender relations at home. According to Katherine Allen, males have started to take care of the socialization of the child. The concept of paternity leave has given impetus to the role of males in looking after the newborn baby. With women working outside, there has been a rise of creches to look after the children. These creches are the alternate mode of socialization for the child.
6. Feminism has led women to be incharge of their reproductive capacity. Feminists like Arlie Russel Hochschild see childbearing as a restriction on the freedom of women.
7. Focus on gender equality has led to an increase in women’s education. This has brought about many changes to the family – some positive and some negative. Educational attainment has enabled financial independence, enhanced awareness by exposure to social and political conditions, instilled a sense of confidence and better decision-making capacity.