Sociology Optional (Classical Sociologists and Theoretical orientation) by Smriti Rao Mishra

Model Answer

Question #1. Using the Marxist approach, trace the evolution of society. 10 marks (150 words)

Approach:

• The question is fairly straightforward requiring the answer to cover Marx’s theory on evolution of society i.e. his theory of historical materialism. Introduce with a context of Marx’s theory & discuss the conceptual components of the answer. End with a suitable conclusion.
• Discuss & explain key concepts of Marx’s theory of evolution of society – Primitive communism – Slavery – Feudalism – Capitalism
• Conclusion

Hints:

The interplay between forces of production and relations of production has been the fulcrum of Karl Marx’s analysis of the Capitalist system. According to Marx, Capitalism is system of production where the profits of labour provided by the mass labour, are accrued by the owners of the production. This leads to an exploitative arrangement producing the ‘haves’ or Proletariat and the ‘haves nots’ or the bourgeoisie.

Commodity Fetishism

Every object has a use value and an exchange value. Use value refers to the intrinsic quality of the object which renders it useful, whereas the object attains an exchange value when it is transforme into a commodity, which means the object can now be exchanged for money. For instance, there could be a piece of wood, which is carved into a table through human labour. The element of human labour transforms the wood into a commodity which has both use value as well as exchange value.

However, the moment an object turns into a commodity it severs itself from the value of human labour and is replaced by the monetary value which underlies the universal mode of exchange. In the process of exchange, consumers begin to see commodities only through their inherent value instead of the equivalent amount of labour used to produce the given object.

 In a capitalist society, consumers have access to commodities through conglomerates that siphon off profits from the labour of the proletariat. The process of commodity fetishism then refers to:

1. Viewing commodities in terms of monetary value alone
2. Overseeing concealed relationship between the forces of production and relations of production.

Commodity fetishism is thus a social relationship among things and involves within itself a seed for alienation.

Precedent for Alienation

Alienation refers to a situation where there is disconnect between two interrelated elements, resulting in low integration and high isolation between individuals in a society. Marx identified 4 types of alienation that occur under the capitalist system of production:-

 Alienation from the product

Alienation from means of production

 Alienation from other workers

Alienation of self

Worker becomes an appendage of the machine as he/she no longer has creative space to explore a skill set, integrate within the society through interaction with fellow labourers, no avenue to attach to the products, or bear the fruits of his/her labour.

In the process of attaining commodities, the labour value and the social relation between workers and their relation with the means of production is displaced by a universal mode of exchange such as money. Thus commodity fetishism leads to alienation from self, alienation from means of production, and alienation from product.

Question #2. While the subject matter of Sociology and Psychology are distinct, Mead’s contributions render a bridge between the two. Comment. 15 marks (250 words)

Approach:

• Introduce by stating the distinctiveness between the subject matter of Sociology and Psychology. • Sociology being a general study of society - social facts, social actions, social institutions, etc. Whereas Psychology studies the subjective disposition of individuals by focusing on mind.
• Discuss the contribution of GH Mead, especially his conception of symbols, role taking and concept of self through I and Me. The I links the individual to the mind whereas Me links it to the society.
• Meads work highlights human beings as both a product of their mind as well as the society. Thus bridging the gap between sociology and psychology.

Hints:

 Sociology and Psychology are both interested in human behaviour. However, psychologists are focused on how the mind influences that behaviour, while sociologists study the role of society in shaping behaviour. Earlier sociologists like Durkheim stressed on this distinction and argued that the subject matter of Sociology should be social facts, and should not delve into the mental processes of an individual.

George Herbert Mead offered a social-psychological theory to Sociology that stood in stark contrast to the prevailing theories in Sociology. He is credited with laying the foundations for a general approach to sociology called Symbolic Interactionism.

Symbolic Interactionism focuses on micro-level interaction and the way in which meanings are constructed and transmitted across the members of society. G. H. Mead argued that the individual’s self is a social self, produced in the process of interaction rather than being biologically given

In Mead’s view, human thought, experience and conduct are essentially social. They owe their nature to the fact that human beings interact in terms of symbols, the most important of which are contained in language. Without symbols there would be no human interaction and no human society. Symbolic interactionism is necessary since man has no instincts to direct his behaviour.

He is not genetically programmed to react automatically to particular stimuli. In order to survive he must therefore construct and live within a world of meaning. Social life can be only proceeded if the meanings of symbols are largely shared by members of society. If this were not the case meaningful communication would be impossible. In order for interaction to proceed each person involved must interpret the meanings and intentions of others. This is made possible by the existence of common symbols, but actually accomplished by means of a process which mead terms ‘role taking’.

The process of role taking involves the individual taking on the role of another by imaginatively placing himself in the position of the person with whom he is interacting. On the basis of this interpretation he will make his response to the action of the other. Mead argues that through the process of role taking the individual develops a concept of ‘self’. By placing himself in the position of others he is able to look back upon himself. Mead claims that the idea of a self can only develop if the individual can get outside in such a way as to become an object to himself. To do this he must observe himself from the standpoint of others.

Therefore the origin and development of a concept of self lies in the ability to take the role of another. Mead traces the genesis of self through stages in childhood development. The first stage is the Play Stage in which the children learn to take the attitude of particular/discrete others to themselves. Children play various roles in which they learn to take the role of others who are around them. As a result of such play, the child learns to become both subject and object and begins to become able to build a self.

The next stage is the Game stage in which a child develops a self in the full sense of the term. In this stage, the child must take on the role of everyone else involved in the game i.e take the roles of which Mead terms as Generalized other. Children start to learn to be ableto function in organized groups and to determine what they will do within a specific group. A definite personality of the child starts to emerge.

Mead also identifies two important aspects of the self, which he labels the I and the Me. The I is the immediate response of an individual to others. It is the incalculable, unpredictable and creative aspect of the self which gives the self much of its dynamism.

According to Mead, the Me is the organized set of attitudes of others which one himself assumes. In other words the Me is the adoption of the generalized other and therefore Mead calls it Social Self. Mead’s view of human interaction sees man as both actively creating the social environment and being shaped by it.

The individual initiates and directs his own action while at the same time being influenced by the attitudes and expectations of others in the form of the generalized others. The individual and society are regarded as inseparable for the individual can only become human in a social context

Girth and Mills assert that the concepts like ‘role’ are meeting point of the two sciences of Psychology and Sociology where social structure and individual character meet. Social psychology is thus a bridge between psychology and sociology because it aims to study the interplay between individual character and social structure as human behaviour is not purely driven by instincts.

 GH Mead gave distinct social-psychological explanations when Sociology was dominated by macro theories. He indicated that foundation of human life is human behavior, i.e. it is neither the normatively defined values as argued by earlier sociologists like Durkheim, nor it is purely driven by instincts as indicated by Sigmund Freud.