Sociology Optional (Social Stratification) by Smiriti Rao Mishra

Model Answer

Question #1. Feminization of agriculture exposes the prevalent gender inequality in rural India. Discuss the causes and suggest a way forward. 10 marks (150 words)

Approach:

• The Question requires an analysis of gender inequality in rural India. Women constitute 33% of agricultural labour force and 48% of self-employed farmers.
• Discuss the causes of feminization of agriculture - migration of men, women tend to accept low wages, gendered division of labour, etc.
• Incorporate examples.
• Suggest way forward to address feminization of agriculture and gender inequality and conclude accordingly.

Hints:

The Economic Survey 2017-18 brought to the fore an important phenomenon - the ‘Feminization of agriculture’ in India. It is used to describe the increased absorption of women workforce in agricultural and allied activities. It points out the disproportionate concentration of women in the agriculture sector. The sector employs 80% of all women workforce in India, with 33% being agriculture labourers and 48% being self-employed farmers. Around 60-80% of food is produced by rural women.

Causes of feminization of agriculture:

• Demand : There is an increased demand for women workforce in this sector because they are considered to be more willing to accept low-wage informal jobs. This workforce is easier to hire and fire.
• Migration by men : With the rural distress and agrarian crisis plaguing the economy for the past several years, men in rural India have sought employment outside agriculture. They are opting to either shift to a non-farm sector or migrate to urban areas. These jobs include construction works, driving, teaching etc., which are socially perceived to be “male work”.
• Gendered division of labour : Women’s participation in the rural, non-farm activities is very rare due to patriarchal socio-cultural norms. The concept of a “breadwinner” is strongly associated with men. This has forced women to concentrate on agricultural work as supplementary earners since such jobs provide irregular pays.
• Covid-19 pandemic : Numerous women in rural India have taken charge of farming, playing a critical role in the food security of their households. They became ‘breadwinner’ of the households after men returned to the villages after losing jobs due to the pandemic.

Way forward:

• According to the agricultural census of 2015-16, only 13.9% of women own land holdings. This is despite their critical role in production. This keeps landless women and female agricultural labourers on the fringes since insurance, credit, irrigation and other entitlements by government schemes are denied in the absence of land security.
• Even joint ownership does not lead to ownership of property by women. Therefore, and ownership should be provided to women cultivators.
• Increasing the wages of agricultural labourers. A statutory floor wage for agricultural labourers should be declared by the state governments. The formalisation of the production process will encourage the monetisation of the female workforce and will improve their working conditions.
• Civil societies can play an important role in organising agrarian women into collectives, educating them of their rights, enabling access to the state and giving them sustainable livelihood training.
• Government of India has launched ‘Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP) aimed at empowering women by enhancing their participation in agriculture and to create sustainable livelihood opportunities for them.

The Covid-19 pandemic has provided an opportunity to address some of the long-standing societal issues, including the suppression of women. Economic empowerment of rural women should be prioritized at this juncture to remove patriarchal attitude and to promote gender equality.

Question #2. Differentiate between intra-generational and intergenerational mobility, citing examples. 15 marks (250 words)

Approach:

• This is a straightforward question on the differences between intra-generational and intergenerational mobility.
• Discuss the major differences between the two with the help of examples.
• Conclude by highlighting the significance of social mobility in uplifting the marginalized sections of society.

Hints:

Sorokin in his book Social Mobility defines social mobility as ‘transition of an individual, object or value, which is of human creation from one social position to another.’ There are various types of mobility such as horizontal and vertical mobility, structural and individual mobility, absolute and relative mobility, and intra-generational and intergenerational mobility.

Intragenerational Mobility

• The intragenerational transition in social rank happens throughout a single generation’s existence. It is also referred to as career mobility
• One way is when individuals advance up the corporate ladder in their profession. For example, a person may begin their career as a receptionist and advance to a top position, such as a manager.
• Intra-generational mobility is easier in societies which are relatively modern and have achievement orientation.

Intergenerational Mobility

• Intergenerational mobility occurs when there is a change in social standing from one generation to another.
• The shift might be either in an upward direction or a downward one. For example, a parent could work in a factory while his kid pursues an education that will allow him to become an engineer or a scientist.
• Furthermore, intergenerational mobility describes the extent to which income levels are able to change across generations. In this phenomenon, children have the opportunity to move beyond their social origins, and they can obtain a status that is not dictated by that of their parents.
• As a result of such cultural transformation, the generation adopts a new way of life and thinking. Variances influence Intergenerational mobility in the upbringing of parents and their kids, changes in populations, and changes in the profession.
• Intergenerational mobility is of greatest interest to sociologists. Intergenerational mobility is often used as a measure of equality of opportunity as well as a way to achieve greater economic efficiency.
• In modern society, education is considered as one of the strongest means of intergenerational mobility.

Both intra-generational and intergenerational mobility are dependent upon other important social variables like inequality and exclusion. Wilkinson and Pickett, in their The Spirit Level: Why Greater Equality makes Societies Stronger, 2009, on the basis of an empirical research in many developed countries, concluded that there is a direct relationship between high social inequality and low social mobility and vice-versa.

Similarly, Goldthorpe, in his mobility studies in Britain, concluded that mobility largely happens in the immediate ranks in the hierarchy and absolute mobility, which happens from lower ranks to the higher ranks, is extremely low.

Despite their limitations, intra-generational and intergenerational mobility are two important types of social mobility. They give a broad framework for understanding the extent of openness of any social system.