Sociology Optional (Social Institutions) by Smiriti Rao Mishra

Model Answer

Question #1. The purpose of marriage has changed from sacrament and contract convenience and love until further notice. Do you agree?  10 marks (150 words)

Hints

Marriage, is the cornerstone of a society involving social sanction, generally in the form of civil or religious ceremony, authorizing two persons of opposite sexes to engage in sexual union. According to Kapadia, in his ‘Marriage and Family in India’, rites like homa, panigraha give marriage a sacred meaning.

Marriage as a sacrament-

Marriage is considered sacramental and a divine intervention among Hindus. Ancient Hindu texts point out three main aims of marriage- dharma (duty), praja (progeny) and rati (sensual pleasure). 

Islam also looks upon marriage as ‘sunnah’ (an obligation) which must be fulfilled by every Muslim. It is not a sacrament, but more like a contract and marriage is generally solemnized through a document called ‘Nikahnama’.

However, in modern India, marriage as an institution is undergoing several changes. New experiments like live-in, single parent families and same-sex marriages are now gaining more traction as law takes a liberal interpretation of individual liberties. The easier divorces and acceptance of widow remarriages dilute the notion of marriage being treated as a sacrament

Marriage in modern society-

The purpose of marriage in modern society has changed. Among the urban and educated sections, it is considered as relationship for self-fulfilment, individual interest and companionship. 

The spread of education, particularly among females, the necessity of specialized education for getting jobs and the freedom for mate selection shifted marriage towards gender equality

With greater intrusion of technology and science, a secular scientific outlook has developed towards marriage which lead scholars to believe that marriage has become a matter of convenience and love under further notice.

However, some scholars like K.M. Kapadia are of the opinion that permitting divorce has not affected the sanctity of marriage because divorce is used only as a last resort. Marriage continues to be sacrament; only it is raised to an ethical plane.

Question #2. Is the classification based on sects and cults still relevant to the study of religiousorganization? Examine using examples from Indian context. 15 marks (250 words)

The classification based on sects and cults remains relevant to the study of religious organizations, as it provides insights into the diverse ways in which religious groups form, evolve, and interact within societies. 

What are sects? 

Sects are often offshoots from established religions, arising due to disagreements over interpretations, rituals, or leadership. They typically retain core elements of the parent religion while introducing distinct practices or doctrines. A sect is a tiny religious group that is not fully integrated into society and frequently contradicts at least some of its norms and ideals. Ernst Troeltsch defined sects as organisations that separated from the church because they were dissatisfied with its doctrines and behaviour.

According to Troeltsch, sects are tiny groupings made up largely of people from

underprivileged populations. Sects are led by a leader whose death may cause the sect to fall, which is why sects are short-lived.

Members of numerous sects often proselytise and attempt to attract new members. If a sect attracts a large number of new members, it progressively expands, gets more bureaucratic, and, paradoxically, turns into a denomination.

There are sectarian organisations in practically every faith. Sunni and Shia sects exist in Islam; Karaites exist in Judaism; and Shaivism and Shaktism exist in Hinduism.

Example: Sikhism

Sikhism emerged as a sect within the context of Hinduism in India. Sikhism's founder, Guru Nanak, rejected certain Hindu practices and emphasized monotheism, equality, and social justice. The Sikh community formed a distinct sect with its own beliefs, rituals, and leadership, while maintaining some cultural connections with Hinduism.

Cults:

Cults are usually smaller, novel religious groups that challenge established norms and often revolve around charismatic leaders. They can display more radical beliefs and practices compared to the dominant religious traditions.

What is Cult?

A cult is a tiny religious organisation that is diametrically opposed to the norms and ideals of society.

 Cults have a bad connotation; they are defined by their members absolute allegiance and reliance on their leader, as well as their propensity to take things to extremes. They think that joining a cult is the only road to salvation.

Members live separately from their families who are non-believers. Separating members from their families is a technique to make them isolated and become dependent on the cult.

They are also subjected to psychological sabotage in order to make them obedient. Cults and sects are similar yet differ in at least three ways. For starters, they often do not develop

within a bigger denomination but rather outside of the dominant religious tradition.

Second, they are frequently discreet and do not proliferate as much. Third, they are more prone than sects to rely

on charismatic leadership based on the cult's leaders outstanding personal attributes.Cults and sects in India Famous Indian cults include Dera Sacha Sauda, Rajneeshpuram, and Aghori. Members of these cults belong to several religions, and their ideologies are not religious in nature.Furthermore, the majority of these rely on charismatic individuals and lack institutionalised mechanisms.

Vaishnavism, shaktism, and other sects are all part of one primary religion. They disagree with the larger religion on certain issues and adhere to separate beliefs and philosophies.

For example, Vaishnavism is primarily associated with the God Vishnu, while the same god is one of several in Hinduism. Similarly, Shia and Sunni are Islamic sects that follow distinct

principles, yet their core beliefs are founded on Islamic philosophy.

In conclusion, a sect is a religious branch, but a cult is an organisation of people who are not religious. Members of a sect live regular lives in mainstream society, but members of a cult live apart

from people who do not believe in the cult. Governments have also tolerated sects, while many cults have not.

Example: AumShinrikyoAlthough not from the Indian context, the AumShinrikyo cult in Japan is a notable example. This cult mixed aspects of Buddhism, Hinduism, and other spiritual practices with their leader's teachings. The cult was infamous for the 1995 Tokyo subway sarin gas attack, highlighting the potential dangers of extreme cult beliefs.

Relevance in the Indian Context:

Continued Sect Formation: In India, various sects within Hinduism, such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism, demonstrate the ongoing relevance of sects in religious organization. Each sect has unique practices and theological perspectives while sharing a common foundation.

New Religious Movements: India has seen the rise of new religious movements, which can be categorized as cults. For instance, the Art of Living Foundation, led by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, attracted a large following and introduced novel meditation practices, gaining recognition as a modern religious movement.

Interplay with Social and Political Context: Sects and cults in India often emerge in response to social and political changes. The Bhakti movement, which led to the formation of various sects like the Varkari movement, responded to caste-based discrimination and emphasized devotion to God as a means to attain salvation.

Impact on Mainstream Religion: Sects and cults can influence the broader religious landscape. For instance, the Sant Mat movement, with its focus on inner spirituality, has influenced both Sikhism and Hinduism.

The classification of religious organizations into sects and cults remains relevant in the study of sociology of religion, as it provides a lens through which we can examine the dynamics of religious groups, their origins, and their interactions within society. Various sociological perspectives and thinkers contribute to the understanding of this classification in the Indian context:

Perspectives:

Structural-Functionalism (Perspective):

Prominent sociologist Emile Durkheim's structural-functionalism emphasizes the role of religion in maintaining social cohesion. In this context, sects can be seen as fulfilling a need for adaptation or reform within a religious tradition. They offer an avenue for believers to express their dissatisfaction with prevailing norms, while still adhering to a shared religious framework.

Example: The Bhakti movement in India, with its emergence of various sects that emphasized direct devotion to a personal deity, can be understood from a functionalist perspective. It provided an outlet for individuals to seek spiritual fulfillment within the confines of the existing religious system, contributing to social integration and cohesion.

Conflict Theory (Perspective):

Drawing from Karl Marx's conflict theory, the classification of sects and cults can be seen as a response to social and economic inequalities. Discontent with established religious institutions can lead to the formation of sects that challenge the status quo.

Symbolic interactionism, as developed by George Herbert Mead, focuses on how individuals construct meaning through their interactions. Within this perspective, sects and cults offer unique symbols and rituals that shape the interactions and identities of their members.

Example: ISKCON (Hare Krishna Movement)The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) exemplifies symbolic interactionism. The distinctive chanting, attire, and lifestyle of ISKCON members create a unique identity and sense of belonging. The movement's followers interact through shared symbols and meanings, reinforcing their commitment to the movement.

Modernization Theoryas explored by theorists like Walt Rostow, suggests that societies evolve along a linear path of development. Sects and cults can emerge as responses to modernization and urbanization, providing alternative spiritual pathways.

Example: New Age Movements often considered cult-like due to their departure from established religious norms, gain traction as societies modernize. These movements offer a spiritual alternative to traditional religions, catering to individuals seeking unconventional spiritual experiences in the modern world.

Religion has always been an important component of every man's life. It advises people on the route to choose in life, teaching principles that help form them into the persons they become. There are numerous major faiths in the world, and many sects and cults have sprung from them.

In conclusion, the classification of religious organizations into sects and cults is still relevant in the study of sociology of religion, providing insights into the complex ways in which religious groups respond to societal changes, inequalities, and individual aspirations. Various sociological perspectives offer unique lenses to analyze the emergence, functions, and impacts of these religious entities in the Indian context.