Sociology Optional (Western Thinkers) by Smriti Rao Mishra

Model Answer

Question #1. Using the Marxist approach, trace the evolution of society. (10 Marks) (150 words)

Approach:

The question is fairly straight forward requiring the answer to cover Marx’s theory on evolution of society i.e. his theory of historical materialism. Introduce with a context of Marx’s theory & discuss the conceptual components of the answer. End with a suitable conclusion. 

Discuss & explain key concepts of Marx’s theory of evolution of society 

Primitive communism

Slavery

Feudalism

Capitalism

Conclusion

Hints

 Marx’s theory of evolution is rooted in his theory of historical materialism which was basically his application of his scientific methodology, dialectical materialism to understanding the changes that occurred in history. Marx rooted the source of change in the mode of production which according to him brought about changes in the relations of production i.e. the superstructure. Changes in society, morals, norms, values, religions etc were all explained by Marx by way of this theory. To explain his theory, he examined the changes through history vis a vis the modes of production during each stage i.e. primitive communism, slavery followed by feudalism and capitalism. Through this, he explained the evolution of society and predicted the onslaught of communism.

Primitive Communism refers to the earliest time in human history characterized by classlessness, absence of private property & the state. The means of production were owned by the community but were backward since technology was underdeveloped. Stone made hunting weapons, the fishing net and hooks were the means of production. Production was limited and was for self-consumption. There was no surplus production and consequently there were no class divisions or exploitation. However, as technology evolves, surplus is generated and means of production are owned by a few. Gradually, society is divided into masters who are “haves” & slaves who are the “have nots”. There is a state however it is coercive and only serves the interests of the masters. This is followed by a feudal form of society wherein means of production i.e. land is owned by the feudal lords & the peasants plough the fields however a large portion of the produce is appropriated by the feudal lords. Feudalism is succeeded by capitalism where the prevailing dominant classes are the proletariat & the bourgeois. Economic and social capital are owned and controlled by the bourgeoises. One sees that through each of these stages, Marx demonstrates how the history of society is a history of class struggle and antagonisms between the predominant classes wherein their interests are contradictory and irreconcilable. 

Thus, it is seen that Marx’s theory of society is rooted essentially in the economy, conflict of classes and changes in technology. While Marx also predicted that the class differences and exploitation would lead to an overthrow of the ruling class and the state with consequent emergence of communism, this never actually occurred in history for which Marx’s theory has come under criticism. However, Marx’s theory of historical materialism is useful in understanding several changes over history as well as existing forms of capitalist societies. 

Question #2. Outline the Durkheim's theoretical approach to understand modern societies. (15 Marks) 15 marks (250 words)

Approach:

Introduction – Durkheim’s concept of Division of Labour

Types of solidarity 

Mechanical solidarity and its characteristics

Organic solidarity and its features

Criticism of Durkheim’s theory

Conclusion

Hints

Durkheim belonged to the Functionalist school of thought and believed that society progressed from traditional to modern via the creation and extension of the division of labour. A division of labour arrangement is one in which complicated duties are broken into a number of lesser jobs and distributed among individuals. 

Durkheim viewed society as a social fact and was particularly concerned with the topic of social solidarity, or how contemporary society holds together given that society is made up of many individuals, each behaving in an independent and autonomous manner, with separate, unique, and varied goals.

Types of Solidarity 

In The Social Division of Labor Durkheim distinguishes two forms of social solidarity: 

Mechanical solidarity - which characterized earlier or traditional civilizations with a restricted division of work.

Focus on collective consciousness- These communities are distinguished by similarity, in which individuals share similar ideals based on common work and life events and experiences.

Repressive law or penal law - If there is a crime in our society, that crime is an offence to everybody, since it is an offence to the shared morality, the shared system of values that exists.

Everyone is more or less self-sufficient, generalist, and so bound by comparable experiences, duties, values, and morals.

Durkheim maintained that when population density and interaction (moral density) rises, society shifts from mechanical to organic solidarity.

Organic solidarity  

The evolution of the division of labour erodes collective consciousness while simultaneously creating a new type of solidarity. This new form is known as organic solidarity, and it is distinguished by people' reliance on one another within the division of labour, as well as a certain level of collaboration.

Heterogeneity - Whereas mechanical solidarity believes that people are similar to one another, organic solidarity assumes that they are not. Organic solidarity is social integration that results from people' need for one another's services.

Interdependence and specialisation - there is a substantially higher division of labour, with individuals operating similarly to the interdependent but distinct organs of a live organism. Each of our activities grows increasingly specialised, making it more personal.

Restitutive or restorative law - While elements of penal or repressive law, such as the death penalty for murder, persist in modern societies, modern legal systems are primarily distinguished by judgments that require the offending party to restore the situation to its original state – for example, paying restitution for theft or to victims.

Criticism of Durkheim’s ideas

According to Karl Marx, the concept of collective conscience or shared ideals can be viewed as ruling class ideology. Furthermore, Marx sees division of labour as a process that dehumanises and alienates producers from their creations.

According to conflict perspective Durkheim failed to see conflict and disorder that would arise as a result of strong competitiveness in society.

According to Max Weber, the rationalisation of social life and the dominance of bureaucratic structures are the primary causes of anomie in modern industrial society.

According to Durkheim’s perspective with increase in division of labour, society evolves from mechanical to organic society. Modem societies are based on the principles of differentiation and interdependence and it act as new form of collective consciousness that binds the social solidarity in the society. Despite the criticisms of Durkheim’s theory, it is still relevant to study the issues of integration in the modern society.