On August 25, 2025, the Supreme Court directed the Union government to frame guidelines for regulating social media, focusing on influencers commercialising free speech while safeguarding individual dignity.

Balancing Free Expression and Societal Interests

Supreme Court’s Directions

• Background: An intervention application was filed by a non-profit supporting Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) patients, alleging that comedians on social media (Samay Raina, Vipul Goyal, Balraj Paramjeet Singh Ghai, Sonali Thakkar, Nishant Jagdish Tanwar) made derogatory comments about SMA patients.
• Court Observations:
  • Commercialising free speech should not offend vulnerable groups.
  • Regulations should be framed in consultation with the National Broadcasters and Digital Association (NBDA).
  • Guidelines should address evolving technological and communication challenges, not just react to individual incidents.
• Immediate Action: Comedians were ordered to issue public apologies on YouTube and other platforms.

Constitutional Framework on Free Speech

• Article 19(1)(a): Guarantees the right to freedom of speech and expression.
• Article 19(2): Permits restrictions only on eight grounds:
  • Sovereignty and integrity of India
  • Security of the state
  • Friendly relations with foreign states
  • Public order
  • Decency or morality
  • Contempt of court
  • Defamation
  • Incitement to offences
• Judicial Precedents:
  • Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): Section 66A of IT Act struck down; “annoyance,” “insult,” or “hatred” cannot justify criminalisation of speech.
  • Kaushal Kishore v. State of UP (2023): Article 19(2) grounds are exhaustive; cannot be expanded.
  • Imran Pratapgadhi Case (2025): Speech causing discomfort remains protected if it does not violate Article 19(2).

Commercial Speech: Legal Evolution

• Hamdard Dawakhana v. Union of India (1959): Advertisements with trade purposes do not fall under free speech if primarily commercial.
• Tata Press v. MTNL (1995): Commercial speech that serves public interest, such as informing consumers, can be constitutionally protected.
• Suresh v. State of Tamil Nadu (1997): Commercial expression must balance societal interests; private commercial motives are not protected if harmful.
• Current Perspective: Distinction between commercial speech advancing public interest versus speech serving only private gain.

Social Media Regulation: Challenges

• Current Framework: IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, under IT Act, 2000.
• Obligations: Social media platforms must prevent obscene, pornographic, or harmful content; influencers are subject to ordinary criminal laws.
• Supreme Court’s Caution: Additional regulations must not impinge upon fundamental freedom of expression; must be carefully drafted.
• Polyvocality Issue: Differing judicial interpretations create “patchwork jurisprudence,” leaving discretionary power in judges’ hands (Gautam Bhatia).

Way Forward

• Guidelines Drafting:
  • Must involve stakeholders, including digital media experts, civil society, and broadcasters.
  • Focus on preventing commercial abuse of speech without curtailing genuine expression.
• Awareness and Ethics:
  • Social media influencers should be sensitised about vulnerable groups and ethical communication.
• Technology Measures:
  • Platforms may adopt AI-based content moderation, transparent grievance redressal, and user reporting mechanisms.
• Judicial Oversight:
  • Courts should ensure reasonableness under Article 19(2) and avoid arbitrary restrictions on free expression.

India’s horticulture production reached 367.72 million tonnes in 2024–25 (2nd advance estimates), highlighting its rising role in farmer incomes and agricultural diversification.

Horticulture as a Driver of Agri-Economy

Introduction

• Horticulture is a vital sub-sector of Indian agriculture contributing to nutritional security, employment generation, crop diversification, and export growth.
• Farmers’ success stories such as coconut-based integrated farming in Kerala and floriculture in Assam showcase its transformative potential for small and medium landholders.

Significance of Horticulture in India

• Second Largest Producer Globally: India ranks next only to China in fruits and vegetables.
• Nutritional Value: Fruits, vegetables, spices, nuts, and plantation crops help ensure dietary diversity and food security.
• Economic Contribution: Provides higher returns compared to traditional field crops.
• Employment Generation: Engages a large workforce in cultivation, processing, and value chains.
• Export Potential: Key contributor to spice, coconut, cashew, and floriculture exports.

Growth Trends

• Production Growth:
  • From 70 MT in 2013–14 to 367.72 MT in 2024–25.
  • Fruits: 114.51 MT, Vegetables: 219.67 MT, Others: 33.54 MT.
• Productivity Gains:
  • Fruits increased from 17 MT/ha (2014–15) to 15.80 MT/ha (2023–24).
  • Vegetables rose from 76 MT/ha to 18.40 MT/ha in the same period.
• Doubling Farmers’ Income Strategy (2016): Horticulture identified as a high-value crop diversification measure.

Government Schemes and Institutional Support

• Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) (2014–15 onwards)
  • Umbrella scheme for holistic growth.
  • Key components: Centres of Excellence, Cluster Development Programme, Clean Plant Programme, Post-Entry Quarantine Facilities.
  • Provides financial & technical support for nurseries, orchards, protected cultivation, organic farming, irrigation, mechanisation, and post-harvest infrastructure.
• National Horticulture Mission (NHM) (2005–06)
  • Cluster-based approach with focus on quality planting material, area expansion, rejuvenation, modern technologies, and post-harvest management.
• Horticulture Mission for North East & Himalayan States (HMNEH)
  • Initiated in 2001–02; merged into MIDH (2014–15).
  • Covered the entire horticulture chain in difficult terrains of North East and Himalayan states.
• National Horticulture Board (NHB) (1984)
  • Focus on high-tech commercial horticulture, cold chains, quality planting material, and cluster development.
• Coconut Development Board (CDB) (1981)
  • Statutory body under the Coconut Development Board Act, 1979.
  • Works on expansion, productivity enhancement, value addition, and by-product utilisation.
• Central Institute for Horticulture (CIH), Nagaland
  • Provides capacity building and training for North Eastern farmers.

Research and Quality Improvement

• Supported by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), State/Central Agricultural Universities (SAU/CAU), and National Agricultural Research System (NARS).
• Focus on improved horticultural varieties, disease-resistant plants, and climate-resilient technologies.

Challenges

• Fragmented supply chains and inadequate cold storage.
• Quality planting material and disease-free varieties remain limited.
• Market linkages, branding, and export competitiveness require strengthening.
• High perishability and post-harvest losses (~20–30% in fruits and vegetables).

Way Forward

• Infrastructure Strengthening: Expand cold chains, pack houses, and logistics.
• Cluster-Based Growth: Develop region-specific crop hubs to boost productivity and exports.
• Technology Adoption: Encourage precision farming, hydroponics, vertical farming, and protected cultivation.
• Value Addition: Promote processing industries for juices, frozen vegetables, and spices.
• Skill Development: Continuous training for farmers on global best practices.
• Research & Development: Focus on biofortified, climate-resilient, and pest-resistant horticultural varieties.
• Export Promotion: Branding and certification of Indian horticultural products for international markets.

A recent study using coral microatolls in the Maldives has reconstructed sea-level history over 90 years, showing that sea-level rise in the Indian Ocean began as early as the late 1950s, much earlier than previously believed.

Key Dimensions of the Issue

Sea-Level Rise in the Indian Ocean

• Indian Ocean average rise: ~3.3 mm/year, higher than the global average.
• Total increase over the last half-century: 30–40 cm.
• Acceleration observed:
  • 1930–1959: 1–1.84 mm/year.
  • 1960–1992: 2.76–4.12 mm/year.
  • 1990–2019: 3.91–4.87 mm/year.

Coral Reefs and Vulnerability

• Sunlight dependency: Rise in sea level reduces light penetration ? coral bleaching.
• Stress factors: Ocean warming, acidification, changing tides, and coastal erosion.
• Coral bleaching linked to El Niño and negative Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)

Use of Coral Microatolls in Research

• Definition: Disk-shaped coral colonies growing sideways when vertical growth is restricted by tide levels.
• Serve as natural recorders of sea-level variations.
• Research method: Uranium-thorium dating + growth band analysis (like tree rings).
• Advantage: Provide long-term, high-resolution sea-level records in tectonically stable areas.

Findings of the Study

• Sea-level rise began decades earlier than tide-gauge records suggested.
• Regional differences:
  • Central Indian Ocean: Earlier, stronger acceleration.
  • Coastal Indian Ocean: More recent acceleration.
• Drivers: Oceanic and atmospheric changes (e.g., intensified Southern Hemisphere westerlies, increased ocean heat uptake, shifts in ITCZ).

Implications for Island Nations

• Nations at risk: Maldives, Lakshadweep, Chagos archipelago.
• Risks: Submergence of land, loss of biodiversity, damage to infrastructure, displacement of populations.
• Importance of historical reconstruction: Enables better climate adaptation planning.

Way Forward:

• Expand monitoring using coral microatolls across the Indian Ocean basin.
• Enhance adaptation strategies for vulnerable island nations through coastal protection and relocation planning.
• Strengthen international cooperation on climate finance and technology transfer for resilience building.
• Integrate regional sea-level histories into IPCC models for improved projections.

The Supreme Court Bar Association (SCBA) raised concerns over the disproportionately low number of women judges in the Supreme Court and High Courts.

Current Scenario in Higher Judiciary:

• Several High Courts, including Uttarakhand, Tripura, Meghalaya, and Manipur, currently have no women judges.
• India has approximately 1,100 sanctioned posts of High Court judges; nearly 670 are held by men and only 103 by women.

Supreme Court Appointments:

• Justices Alok Aradhe and Murlidhar P. Pancholi were recently sworn in as Supreme Court judges.
• Justice Pancholi is in line to become Chief Justice of India around 2031, highlighting the slow progression for women to top judicial positions.

Recommendations and Advocacy:

• SCBA resolution urges proportional representation of women in both the Supreme Court and High Courts.
• Senior advocates, including Vikas Singh and Indira Jaising, emphasized the need for increased women appointments and recognition of their contributions in the judiciary.

Historical Context:

• Low representation of women in India’s higher judiciary has been a long-standing issue despite women making up nearly 50% of law graduates.
• Recommendations and advocacy by the Bar have not yet translated into proportional appointments.

The Supreme Court has sought a detailed response from the Union Government regarding the restoration of statehood to Jammu and Kashmir in the ongoing Zahoor Ahmed Bhat vs UT of J&K case.

Constitutional Provisions for State Formation:

• Article 3 empowers Parliament to form a new State, alter areas, boundaries, or names of existing States.
• However, while the Union can diminish the area of a State, it cannot convert a State into a Union Territory permanently, as this undermines federalism.
• States can be created through admission (e.g., J&K’s accession in 1947), establishment (e.g., Goa, Sikkim), or reorganisation (e.g., 1956 onwards).

Federal Design of India:

• India is described as a “Union of States” (Article 1) — implying unity, indestructibility, and indivisibility.
• The term “Union” highlights strong central authority while retaining federal features through equitable distribution of powers.
• Federalism has been recognised as part of the Basic Structure of the Constitution (Kesavananda Bharati case, 1973).

Judicial Position:

• On 11 December 2023, the Supreme Court upheld the abrogation of Articles 370 and 35A but directed restoration of statehood and conduct of elections.
• Assembly elections were conducted in October 2024, but statehood has not yet been restored.

Significance of Statehood:

• Restoring statehood ensures elected governments function with real powers, limiting the control of the Lieutenant Governor.
• Prolonged Union Territory status weakens India’s federal spirit and may dilute citizens’ democratic rights.

Rajya Sabha’s Role:

• As per Article 83(1), Rajya Sabha is a permanent body, ensuring State representation in law-making at the Union level — crucial for federal balance.
• Without full statehood, J&K’s role in federal decision-making remains curtailed.

The Telangana Assembly has passed two Bills providing 42% reservation for Backward Classes in local-body elections, while related Bills/ordinance await Presidential assent.

Legislative Development

• Telangana Assembly passed Telangana Municipalities (Third Amendment) Bill, 2025 and Telangana Panchayat Raj (Third Amendment) Act, 2025.
• Purpose: To implement 42% reservation for Backward Classes (BCs) in local-body elections.
• Earlier Bills/ordinance with similar provisions are still awaiting Presidential assent.

Constitutional and Judicial Context

• Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992): Supreme Court capped total reservation (SCs + STs + OBCs) at 50%, except under extraordinary circumstances supported by scientific data.
• Creamy Layer principle was introduced for OBCs.
• Telangana’s move, pushing reservations beyond 50%, is therefore vulnerable to judicial scrutiny.

Basis for Reservation

• State government relied on socio-economic, educational, employment, political, and caste survey (SEEEPC Survey) covering all households.
• The survey is meant to provide a scientific basis for reservation enhancement.

Procedural Aspect

• Under Article 200, a Governor may reserve a State Bill for the consideration of the President.
• Hence, some Telangana Bills and an ordinance are still pending approval.
• Not all State laws require Presidential assent — only those reserved by the Governor.

A new study in the Journal of Comparative Psychology has documented instances of orcas provisioning humans with freshly killed prey across different oceans between 2004–2024.

• Orcas (Orcinus orca) are the largest species of dolphins, often called killer whales, and are apex predators at the top of the marine food chain.

• Researchers collected data over two decades (2004–2024) from five oceanic regions—Eastern North Pacific, Eastern Tropical Pacific, Western South Pacific, Western South Atlantic, and Eastern North Atlantic. Only interactions where orcas approached humans from a distance (?15 m) were included.

• Orcas provisioned humans 34 times, offering prey like seaweed, invertebrates, fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. In 33 of these, they awaited human response before retrieving or abandoning the prey. This reflects advanced cognition and prosocial tendencies.

• Orcas possess a large brain-to-body size ratio, associated with higher intelligence, learning, and complex social behaviour. They live in matriarchal pods, where the oldest female leads and influences group decisions.

• While some experts suggest this provisioning may be play behaviour, its occurrence among both adults and juveniles, and often with whole prey, indicates complex social or communicative intent beyond simple play.

• Being apex predators, orcas influence marine ecosystems. Their unusual interactions with humans reflect evolving dimensions of interspecies relationships and raise ethical and ecological questions.

Beaches in Spain were temporarily closed after the rare and venomous marine organism Blue Dragon (Glaucus atlanticus) appeared in coastal waters.

What are Blue Dragons?

• Scientific name:Glaucus atlanticus
• A type of nudibranch (sea slug).
• Small (about 3–4 cm long) but capable of delivering venom stronger than jellyfish they consume.

Habitat & Distribution

• Found in warm tropical and subtropical waters: Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans.
• Rarely seen in the Mediterranean Sea, but recent warming and climate anomalies may explain their arrival.

Feeding &Defence Mechanism

• Feed on Portuguese man o’ war and other siphonophores.
• Store stinging cells (nematocysts) from prey in their tissues and use them for defence.
• Venom can cause rashes, nausea, vomiting, and swelling in humans.

Reason for Arrival in Spain

• Climate change and warming of seas (Mediterranean Sea recently exceeded 28°C)
• Abnormal temperature anomalies and strong currents may have transported them.

Ecological Significance

• Indicator of marine ecosystem shifts due to rising temperatures and oceanic circulation changes.
• Show how warming seas are altering marine biodiversity distribution.

A study by IISER Kolkata reveals Sundarbans’ microbial communities can degrade plastics but may also carry antibiotic and metal resistance genes.

Microplastics and Nanoplastics:

• Plastics do not biodegrade naturally and fragment into microplastics (<5 mm) and nanoplastics (<1 µm), which persist in ecosystems for decades, accumulate pollutants, and act as carriers of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs).

Role of Microbes:

• Certain microbes produce enzymes, such as PETase from Ideonellasakaiensis, capable of breaking down plastic polymers like PET. Biodegradation offers a potential natural solution to plastic pollution.

Sundarbans Focus:

• The Sundarbans, the world’s largest mangrove forest spanning India and Bangladesh, receives ~3 billion microplastic particles daily via rivers feeding the Bay of Bengal. Microbial communities in this environment have adapted to high plastic exposure.

Study Methodology:

• IISER Kolkata collected surface water monthly (2020–21) from the Mooriganga estuary, filtered microbial cells, extracted DNA, and performed metagenomic sequencing. Plastic-degrading enzyme (PDE) genes were identified via PlasticDB, while ARGs, metal resistance genes (MRGs), and mobile genetic elements were detected using specialized databases.

Key Findings:

• 838 PDE hits were identified, acting on 17 plastic polymers; 73% targeted synthetic plastics.
• Most abundant PDEs degraded PEG, indicating contamination from biomedical and industrial sources.
• PDE abundance peaked during the monsoon, linked to nutrient and microplastic inflow from inland waters.

AMR and Metal Resistance Co-occurrence:

• Microbes with PDEs often carried ARGs (aminoglycoside resistance) and MRGs (zinc resistance). Co-occurrence network analysis suggests selective pressures from plastic additives, metals, and pollutants drive simultaneous adaptation.

Implications:

• Positive: Microbial plastic degradation offers natural remediation pathways for environmental plastic pollution.
• Negative: Microbes capable of degrading plastics may act as reservoirs of ARGs and MRGs, posing risks to One Health and public health via horizontal gene transfer. Climate change may exacerbate ARG dissemination.

There has been a sharp surge in malicious APK-based cyber frauds in India, with Parliament informed of a 900% rise in cybercrimes between 2021 and 2025.

Nature of Fraud:

• Malicious APK files on Android devices function like .exe files on Windows. Fraudsters circulate fake apps mimicking government portals (PM-Kisan, tax refund, electricity boards, banks) to steal credentials and intercept OTPs.

Impact:

• The National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal logged 12,47,393 cybercrime cases in the last six months. Telangana Cyber Security Bureau reported ?779.06 crore losses (Jan–July 2025), with daily financial losses of ?10–15 lakh.

Operation:

• 60–70% of malicious APKs are developed in India (Delhi NCR, Meerut, Jharkhand, etc.), while 30–40% trace back to the U.S., U.K., and China. Telegram and dark web serve as key distribution channels.

Targeting Method:

• Fraudsters buy leaked datasets containing names, numbers, and income details, enabling tailored scams. High-income professionals (doctors, bankers, real estate agents) are prime targets.

Technical Modus Operandi:

• Fraudulent APKs remain dormant during installation, bypass antivirus scans, then harvest data (contacts, location, banking details) and transmit it encrypted to external servers.

Investigation Challenges:

• Only 20–30% of APKs are decrypted successfully. Financial trails often end in mule accounts or cryptocurrency, making masterminds hard to trace. Google has recently removed ~50 malicious apps based on reports.

Policy Relevance:

• Highlights urgent need for stronger cyber hygiene, stricter app vetting by intermediaries, enhanced digital literacy, and cross-border cybercrime cooperation.

HAL likely to deliver 2 Tejas Mark-1A jets in October

Strategic Significance

• Indigenous fighter developed by HAL under Atmanirbhar Bharat.
• Replaces ageing MiG-21 fleet, boosts IAF squadron strength.
• Enhances India’s defence exports potential (interest from SE Asia, Africa).

Avionics & Radar

• Equipped with AESA radars: Israeli EL/M-2052 & indigenous Uttam.
• Provides long-range detection, multi-target tracking, and jamming resistance.

Electronic Warfare

• Features Unified Electronic Warfare Suite (UEWS).
• Advanced Self-Protection Jammer (SPJ) improves survivability in hostile environments.

Weapons Capability

• Nine hardpoints for diverse payloads.
• Can deploy BVR missiles, ASRAAM, air-to-ground and precision-guided munitions.
• Supports multirole operations: air dominance, strike, maritime missions.

Operational Efficiency

• Reduced weight and improved maintainability.
• Upgraded Digital Fly-by-Wire (DFCC Mk1A) for agility and stability.
• Faster turnaround and high mission availability.

The Indian NGO Educate Girls has been awarded the 2025 Ramon Magsaysay Award for its work in bringing out-of-school girls into classrooms and addressing gender disparity in education.

About:

• Established in 1957 in memory of Ramon Magsaysay, the 7th President of the Philippines.
• Considered the “Asia’s Nobel Prize”, awarded for greatness of spirit and transformative leadership.

Administering Body

• Managed by the Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation (RMAF), Manila, Philippines.

Award Components

• Certificate and medallion (with embossed image of Ramon Magsaysay).
• Award ceremony held annually on August 31 (Magsaysay’s birth anniversary).

Award Categories (1958–2008)

• 1958–2008: Government Service, Public Service, Community Leadership, Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communication Arts, Peace and International Understanding, Emergent Leadership.
• Post-2009: Awards are given without fixed categories, focusing broadly on transformative leadership.)

Notable Indian Recipients

• Vinoba Bhave (1958) – Community Leadership
• Jayaprakash Narayan (1965) – Public Service
• Kiran Bedi (1994) – Government Service
• Aruna Roy (2000) – Community Leadership
• Ravish Kumar (2019) – Journalism
• Educate Girls NGO (2025) – Education/Community Leadership

Significance

• Recognises grassroots leadership and service in Asia.
• Reinforces values of social justice, equity, peace, and human dignity.
• Provides global recognition to Asian reformers and organisations.

The Alaska Summit (August 2025) highlighted internal divisions within U.S. foreign policy, where Donald Trump’s anti-interventionist stance clashed with the entrenched “permanent Washington”.

Trump’s Mandate and Limits

• Electoral Promise: Trump campaigned in 2024 on ending the Ukraine war immediately, reflecting 66% of American support for a negotiated settlement.
• Constraints on Action: Despite a clear mandate, his ability to deliver peace was restricted by institutional resistance and entrenched foreign policy lobbies.
• Alaska Summit Outcome: Optics of statesmanship were achieved, but concessions to Russia were withheld, prolonging the conflict.

America-First versus Permanent Washington

• Anti-Interventionist Position: Trump, Vice-President J.D. Vance, and leaders like Vivek Ramaswamy advocate curtailing U.S. military interventions and focusing on domestic priorities.
• Permanent Washington Interests: A coalition of neo-con politicians, bureaucrats, and commercial lobbies sustain military action and global hegemony.
• Internal Contest:S. foreign policy is shaped less by external adversaries than by internal power struggles between elected leaders and entrenched establishments.

Implications for Global Security

• Ukraine Conflict Stalemate: Continued U.S. military support prolongs hostilities despite public demand for peace and reduced interventionism.
• Risk of Escalation: The Ukraine war brings the world closer to nuclear confrontation, making domestic U.S. policy battles critical for global peace.
• Future Geopolitics: America’s internal contest will influence responses to rising powers like India, China, and Russia more than bilateral negotiations.

Practice Question:

“The Ukraine conflict underscores that U.S. foreign policy is increasingly shaped by domestic political contests rather than international negotiations. Critically examine.”  (250 words)

India’s Q1 FY 2025-26 GDP growth of 7.8% alongside S&P’s sovereign rating upgrade highlights the nation’s resilience and reform-driven momentum.

Growth and Stability

• Broad-Based Growth: Real GDP grew 7.8% in Q1 FY 2025-26, with manufacturing (7.7%), construction (7.6%), and services (9.3%) contributing significantly.
• Global Standing: India is now the world’s fourth-largest economy and fastest-growing major one, contributing over 15% to global incremental growth.
• Market Recognition: S&P Global upgraded India’s sovereign rating after 18 years, citing robust growth, fiscal consolidation, and monetary credibility.

Poverty Reduction and Energy Security

• Poverty Alleviation: Between 2013-14 and 2022-23, nearly 24.82 crore people exited multidimensional poverty through targeted welfare and digital delivery systems.
• Energy Expansion: India is the third-largest energy consumer, with refining capacity of 5.2 million barrels/day and ambitious targets for 2030.
• Energy Transition: Ethanol blending rose from 1.5% in 2014 to 20% in 2025, saving ?1.25 lakh crore in forex and directly benefiting farmers.

Technology and Future Trajectory

• Industrial Transformation: Semiconductor and electronics investments under PLI schemes are building resilient, trusted supply chains with Japanese cooperation.
• Digital Momentum: India leads globally in real-time payments, with UPI driving productivity, formalisation, and innovation-led exports.
• Long-Term Outlook: Projections suggest India could become the world’s second-largest economy in PPP terms by 2038 with GDP above $34 trillion.

“India’s economic resilience is shaped by a synergy of reforms, energy security, and digital transformation. Discuss with reference to recent growth trends and future challenges.”   (250 words)

India’s heavy dependence on imported crude oil and gas amid global supply shocks has renewed focus on building an energy sovereignty doctrine.

India’s Import Dependence and Risks

• Crude Vulnerability: India imports over 85% of its crude oil and 50% of its natural gas, exposing its economy to global disruptions.
• Russian Factor: Russia has become India’s largest oil supplier (35%-40% in 2024-25), but overreliance on one partner increases strategic risk.
• Macroeconomic Strain: Crude and gas accounted for $170 billion of imports in FY2023-24, pressuring the rupee, widening trade deficit, and reducing economic stability.

Lessons from Global Energy Shocks

• Historical Flashpoints: Events like the 1973 Oil Embargo, 2011 Fukushima disaster, and 2021 Texas Freeze reshaped energy strategies worldwide.
• Geopolitical Disruptions: The 2022 Russia-Ukraine war and Europe’s energy crisis showed the dangers of single-source dependence.
• Recent Blackout Risk: The 2025 Iberian Peninsula grid collapse highlighted the perils of over-reliance on renewables without backup systems.

India’s Path to Energy Sovereignty

• Domestic Unlocking: Coal gasification, carbon capture, and nuclear revival can strengthen indigenous energy capacity.
• Sustainable Transition: Biofuels, ethanol blending, and green hydrogen create rural empowerment, foreign exchange savings, and clean fuel security.
• Resilient Backbone: Pumped hydro storage and diversified sourcing strategies ensure grid stability and protection against global oil shocks.

Practice Question:

“India’s energy policy must move from import dependence to energy sovereignty. Critically examine the challenges and opportunities of this transition in light of global energy disruptions.”    (250 words)