Art & Culture (Architecture and Sculptures in India) by Ashutosh Nath Jha

Model Answer

Question #1. Discuss the significant influences and styles that have shaped the diverse architectural traditions in India? (200 words, 10 marks)       

Approach

• Theme of the question is to discuss influences and styles through ages starting from Indus valley to medieval India which has given diversity to Indian architecture. 
• Introduction can be started with highlighting different architectural masterpieces one from ancient and other from medieval to give gist of the central demand of question. 
• In the main body discuss influences and styles from different ages from ancient to medieval substantiating with specific examples. Include arguments on how these influences occurred or styles formed-religion, foreign contacts, need specific  
• Conclusion-sum up of arguments. 

Hints

Indian architecture owed its diversity to various themes and influences which formed its basis. Most of the architecture are religious in theme like stupas, chaityas, cave shrines, temples etc. Some influenced through foreign elements through contacts and some are of secular types consisting of buildings, victory memorials like vijay stambh etc. and some served the purpose of common lives like dwelling units, tombs etc. 

In these Architectures we may find growth and fall of an empire, blending of various cultures and styles and other events. 

Some of the noteworthy influences and styles are:

• Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BCE): The architectural style of the Indus Valley Civilization showcased advanced urban planning, with well-designed cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa featuring grid-like street patterns, fortified structures, and efficient drainage systems. These forming a base for subsequent architectural development in region. 
• The next phase of came with 6th BC. Here we do have literary references of elaborated building and palaces made of woods but due to their perishable nature evidences are negligible besides one small remains of a wall which was once majestic. Here one can contemplate the influences of polity and state formation on architecture i.e huge constructions being employed to show the powers. 
• With the spread of Buddhism and state patronage to it, we can see the next phase of architectural developments where huge number of cave shrines, chaityas and viharas were constructed. Most of them influenced by religion and need of the time were constructed on hills and made out of stone reflecting mastery in imagination and design. 
• With foreign contacts through invasion and trades, the influences of foreign elements in architecture was evident in Mauryan rock edicts, pillars and capital pillars. E.g. Rampurva capital, Kumharar capital, Sarnath and lauriya nandangarh. 
• Further stupas reflects one of the highest mark in architectural development through their concept and design. With Buddhism being accorded state patronage, prominence of Buddhism dominated theme was natural outcome in architectural traditions. E.g. Sanchi, Barhut etc. Further we can notice decorations and additions in stupas with toranas, elaborated sculptured gateways during post mauryan and satvahans period. 
• During c. 200 BCE-300 CE, the increasing institutionalisation of religious acitivity and its ability to elicit patronage from different sections of society led to the beginnings of traditions of more permanent and elaborate religious structure. In this period we can see the huge constructions of palaces and monasteries to be developed for Buddhism, Jaina and other religious elements. 
• In the post Mauryan phase we can notice the influences of Gandhara styles in sculpture and depiction of those in temple, wall panels of Buddhist architecture. Further in these periods, in central India and South India a tradition of cave shrines, rock cut caves began to be made at times out of single rock. The influences been religious and styles being natural with elaborated sculptural panels on cave walls. E.g. Kanheri, Karla, Ellora, Ajanta caves. 
• In the 4h AD a major development in architecture came with temple building activities. According to historians, the early temples and idol worship were influenced by the sculptural traditions of images of Buddha, other religious elements. The early temples were simple structure made of stone along with a smaller grabha griha or sanctum sanctorum which housed deity. 
• In the post Gupta period and coming pallava, free standing temples and rock cut temples came into prominence. Temples at mahabalipuram and mamallapuram are evident architectural magnificence. 
• Further in course of time the temple architecture got their distinctive architectural designs and styles with development of Nagara, Dravida and veesara styles of temple architecture. Further some regional variations can also be seen in the form of vallabhi styles, kalinga and Rajput architecture. 
• Most worth mentioning is development in architecture during chola period which took the diversity and styles in temple and secular building constructions to a newer heights. The religion and powers, prosperity of empire was most influencing element. 
• The The havelis of Rajasthan, wooden houses of Kerala, and courtyard houses of Gujarat demonstrate local materials, craftsmanship, and climate-responsive design, reflecting a harmonious integration of culture and environment. Forts and Palaces: Indian architecture is replete with grand forts and palaces, showcasing the power and opulence of various dynasties. Structures like the Red Fort, Mehrangarh Fort, and City Palace in Udaipur reflect a combination of defensive architecture, intricate ornamentation, and royal lifestyles.
• Indo-Islamic Architecture: A unique fusion of Indian and Islamic architectural styles emerged during the medieval period. This style, also known as Indo-Saracenic architecture, combined elements like domes, minarets, and arches with traditional Indian motifs. The Gol Gumbaz and Fatehpur Sikri exemplify this blend.

These significant influences and styles have left an indelible mark on India's architectural traditions. They depict the country's cultural, historical, and religious diversity, making India's architecture a testimony to its rich heritage and identity. Thus the diversity in architectural traditions is due to India being a land of multiple cultures, religiosity and social, political beliefs. Architectures are testament to India’s living history. 

Question #2. Discuss the salient features, forms and thematic development in sculptures from ancient to medieval India. (200 words, 10 marks) 

Approach

• The theme of question is to discuss the sculptural traditions in India with their features, forms (made of stone, depicted on wall panels) and thematic development which denotes on what major themes these sculptures were made. In such question candidate can either show different stages or they can either go with phase wise discussion encompassing and including each directives (features, forms and themes) into it. 
• Introduction shall highlight the sculptural traditions in India and its importance from historical and cultural point of view. 
• Conclusion shall sum up main crux of discussion. 

Hints

• The sculptures of ancient to medieval India showcase a rich artistic tradition that evolved over centuries, reflecting the diverse cultural, religious, and regional influences. Sculptures in India have many forms including-Bronze age sculpture like of dancing girl from Indus valley civilisation to decoration of pillars and edicts during Mauryan times to sculptural depictions in temples and rock cut caves in ancient and medieval times. 
• We also have the most prominent and visible sculptural traditions in the form of Gandhara and Mathura schools of art which developed magnificent images and sculptures of Buddha, kings and emperors like Kanishka etc. With different features and styles the theme of sculptures remained mostly on religious and royal elements. 
• The Bronze sculpture of dancing girl made with lost wax technique was major significant landmark which not only showed creativity and engineering skill but also the artistic sense. Same can be seen with statute of beard man from harappan civilisation. The finer details have been kept in mind and showed well with delicate carvings. 
• The decorated capital pillars during Mauyan Empire and magnificent sculptures of yaksha and Yakshini during post mauryan rule are worth mentioning due to their depiction of symbolic beauty in very naturalistic form. Details like hairs, draping’s, ornaments been kept in mind while making sculptures. Further we also find the elaborated and abundance of sculptures of Kuber, a smiling middle aged man, which depicts common lives and traditions. Further we also find the sculptural traditions of goddess like chauri wielding goddess, Bhudevi etc. 
• The sculptures in ancient and medieval often displayed a sense of idealism, emphasizing beauty, grace, and spiritual symbolism. The human figure was rendered with a stylized form, harmonious proportions, and serene expressions. Attention was given to intricate details, such as jewellery, hairstyles, and clothing.
• The temples of Gupta period, early medieval such as the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh and the temples at Khajuraho, featured intricate sculptures depicting gods, goddesses, and divine narratives. 
• The sculptural traditions during Gupta and their forms showed the huge popularity of religious undertones in sculptures. The Gupta period saw the rise of iconic images of Hindu deities, including Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi. 
• The sculptural traditions in temple walls of Khajuraho depicts the most attractive, humane and emotional presentation of Gods, goddess and “mithuna postures” or erotic poses showing love and lively emotions through art form. 
• Early Buddhist Sculptures: Focused on representing the life and teachings of Buddha, often depicted through symbols like the Bodhi tree, the wheel, or the lotus throne. Forms also have different postures of Buddha, his mudras and messages. 
• Jain Sculptures: Showcased the Tirthankaras (spiritual leaders) and emphasized the values of non-violence and asceticism. Jain temples, such as those at Mount Abu and Ranakpur, showcased sculptures of Tirthankaras and other Jain deities.
• Further down to south The Pallava and Chola dynasties in South India witnessed significant advancements in sculptural art, contributing to the rich cultural heritage of the region. The sculptures of the Pallava and Chola periods displayed distinctive features and styles.
• Descent of the Ganges, One notable theme in Pallava sculpture was the "Descent of the Ganges" (also known as Arjuna's Penance). This mammoth relief panel depicted various celestial beings, animals, and human figures, showcasing the Pallava sculptors' mastery of intricate details. The cities of Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram were prominent centers of Pallava art, with magnificent temples and sculptures displaying the Pallava architectural and sculptural style.
• Further we can see the great crafting and beauty in depiction of mahisasurmardinini in sculptural panel. In Ellora a very significant sculpture is ravana shaking mount Kailash. 
• The Brihadeswarar Temple in Thanjavur stands as an iconic example of Chola sculpture. It showcased massive stone sculptures, including Nandi (the bull), dvarapalas (guardians), and intricate depictions of deities.The Chola period is renowned for its bronze sculptures. These exquisite bronze icons of gods and goddesses were made using the lost-wax casting technique, displaying a high level of craftsmanship.
• Dancing Shiva (Nataraja): The Nataraja sculpture, depicting Lord Shiva in a cosmic dance pose, is an iconic representation of Chola art. It symbolizes the cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction.
• Temple Gopurams: Chola temples featured elaborate gopurams (entrance gateways) adorned with sculptures of deities, celestial beings, and intricate architectural details.
• With the rise of regional kingdoms and principalities in medieval India many regional influences and styles emerged. Among them the Rajputs, kalinga, kakatiya and other southern kingdoms were prominent. 
• With the advent of Islamic rule, a fusion of Hindu and Islamic architectural and sculptural styles emerged, as seen in structures like the Qutub Minar and the Taj Mahal. Verses of Quran and decorative vegetative designs were prominent in sculptural design.

Thus the sculptures of ancient to medieval India were characterized by idealized forms, symbolism, narrative expression, and attention to detail. The diverse forms, ranging from free-standing sculptures to relief panels, depicted themes from Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain religious traditions. These sculptures not only served as artistic expressions but also played a crucial role in the cultural, religious, and historical heritage of India.