Art & Culture (Language and Literature) by Ashutosh Nath Jha

Model Answer

Question #1. Discuss the pivotal role of language as a vehicle for the diffusion and preservation of culture during ancient and medieval India. (15 marks, 250 words)

Hints

The role of language as a vehicle for the diffusion and preservation of culture in ancient and medieval India was of paramount significance. Language served as a powerful tool for the transmission of cultural values, religious beliefs, and knowledge systems across generations and geographical regions.

1. Sanskrit as the Language of Culture: Sanskrit, often referred to as the "language of the gods," played a central role in ancient India. It was the language of religious texts, such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas, which held the key to spiritual and philosophical knowledge. Sanskrit served as a medium for the preservation of ancient Indian religious and philosophical thought.
2. Pali and Prakrit: Known as language of mass during ancient period. This was also adopted by Buddhism and Jainism to propagate their ideas and ideologies/religion among masses. Several Buddhist and jains canonical and non-canonical literatures Pitakas of Buddhist and Anga of jains are compiled in these languages. This helped to familiarise the people with diverse knowledge and traditions.
3. Ancient Indian epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed in Sanskrit. These epics not only conveyed heroic tales but also contained moral and ethical values that were deeply ingrained in the Indian way of life. The stories and characters from these epics continue to influence Indian culture and ethics.
4. Regional Languages: Medieval India witnessed a flowering of regional languages, such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Bengali, and Urdu. These languages became mediums for expressing local cultural nuances and artistic traditions.
5. Literary Works: Renowned literary works like the Tamil Sangam poetry, compositions of Bhakti and Sufi saints in vernacular languages, and the writings of medieval poets like Amir Khusro in Persian, played a significant role in shaping the cultural ethos of their respective regions.
6. Administration and Governance:

• Persian: Persian was the language of administration during the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. It facilitated the integration of diverse linguistic regions into a single administrative framework.

7. Diversity and Syncretism:

• Language as a Unifier: The use of languages like Persian and Urdu as lingua franca allowed for cultural exchanges among different religious and linguistic communities. This linguistic syncretism contributed to the composite culture of medieval India.
• Bhakti and Sufi Movements: Vernacular languages played a pivotal role in the Bhakti and Sufi movements, emphasizing devotion and spiritual experience over rigid religious dogmas. These movements helped bridge linguistic and religious divides.

Knowledge Systems and Education:

• Sanskrit and Persian: Sanskrit was the language of higher learning in traditional Indian education systems. Persian was crucial for Islamic scholarship. Both languages contributed to the dissemination of knowledge in their respective spheres.

Impact on Contemporary India:

• Linguistic Diversity: The linguistic diversity fostered during medieval India continues to define the country's cultural landscape. India's constitution recognizes multiple languages and dialects, promoting linguistic diversity as a cornerstone of Indian identity.

The role of language in ancient and medieval India was dynamic and multifaceted. It acted as a bridge between different epochs, regions, and social strata. Language preserved the rich heritage of India's past while adapting to the evolving cultural landscape. It enabled the expression of diverse traditions, beliefs, and practices, contributing to the colorful mosaic that is Indian culture today.

The interplay of Sanskrit, regional languages, and Persian enriched India's cultural heritage, making it one of the most linguistically diverse and culturally vibrant nations in the world. Language not only served as a medium for cultural preservation but also as a catalyst for cultural evolution and adaptation, ensuring that India's heritage remains alive and relevant.

Question #2. The Sangam literature portrays the social and economic conditions of its time with remarkable vividness. Discuss. (10 marks, 150 words)

Hints

The Sangam Literature

Sangam literature, composed in ancient South India between 100 BCE and 250 CE, offers a captivating window into the socio-economic fabric of its time. This rich collection of Tamil poetry, though not without its limitations, vividly portrays the values, social structures, economic activities, and cultural nuances of the Sangam Age, providing invaluable historical insights.

Three Sangams:

• First Sangam: The first Sangam, although attended by gods and sages, did not produce any surviving works.
• Second Sangam: The second Sangam's only surviving work is the Tolkappiyam, which is primarily a grammar book and provides limited insights into the society.
• Third Sangam: The third and last Sangam produced eight anthologies known as Ettutogai.

However, these works have certain limitations and challenges:

• Exaggerations: Poets were often patronized by ruling elites, leading to exaggerations in descriptions of victories and territorial influence. Even minor events like cattle raids could be portrayed as grand battles.
• Hero-Worship: The focus was often on hero-worship rather than a comprehensive understanding of how these heroes shaped power dynamics and foreign relations.
• Imaginary Elements: Some of the names, titles, dynasties, territories, and wars mentioned in these poems are imaginary.
• Lack of Archaeological Evidence: There is a lack of archaeological evidence to corroborate the existence of certain settlements mentioned in Sangam poems, such as Kaveripattanam.
• Erotic and Romantic Themes: Many of the poems are of an erotic or romantic nature, providing insights into the cultural and emotional aspects of society.
• Untranslated Work: Much of the Sangam literature remains untranslated, and comprehensive studies are still needed.

Part 2: Social Conditions in Sangam Age

Values:

• Sangam society celebrated both love (Akam poems) and warfare (Puram poems), showcasing a balance between emotions and valor.
• Heroic deaths, sacrifices, memorial stones, and honor for the fallen were highly cherished.

Varnas:

• Sangam poets mention four varnas:
• Arashar (Kings and nobility)
• Brahmanas (Priests)
• Vaisyar (Traders)
• Velala (Farmers) who held civil and military positions.
• Brahmanas played a significant role and performed yagnas before wars.
• Priests, poets, and bards (Panar) were respected by society and patronized by the ruling elite.

Women:

• Women were allowed to choose their partners, and love marriages were common.
• The life of widows was often miserable, and practices like sati were prevalent among the upper castes.

Social Interaction:

• Society was divided into clan-based groups called "Kuti."
• Inter-dining and social interaction among Kuti groups were permitted, indicating a flexible social structure.

Tribal Influence:

• The society maintained tribal-pastoral characteristics, with tribal customs and totem worship being prevalent.
• People wore amulets for protection against evil, to bring rain, and for luck.

Death:

• Funeral practices varied from burial in urns to cremation rituals.

Part 3: Economic Conditions in Sangam Age

Overall Economy:

• The Sangam period had five economic zones, each supporting different economic activities based on geography, including hills, drylands, jungles, plains, and the coast.
• While the kings received income from trade, tributes, and plunder, there was no formal taxation system.
• War, raiding, and plunder were common due to conflicts among different chieftains, leading to the destruction of resources and manpower.

Occupations:

• Agriculture, hunting, gathering, fishing, and pastoralism were the main occupations.
• Cattle raids were frequently mentioned in the poems, reflecting the pastoral economy.
• Crafting specialization was rudimentary and served as a secondary source of income.

Foreign Trade:

• Both inland and external trade were practiced, with major exports including silk, cotton, ivory, pepper, and pearls.
• Indian kingdoms, including Chola, Chera, and Pandya, became wealthy by exporting these commodities to the Roman Empire and Southeast Asian kingdoms.

Women in the Economy:

• Women actively participated in various economic activities, including agriculture, planting, weeding, husking, and winnowing of paddy.
• They were also involved in spinning, weaving, basket making, garland making, and flower selling.

The Sangam literature provides valuable insights into the social and economic conditions of ancient South India, also being a secular in nature it offers a glimpse into a society that celebrated love, valour, and a rich tapestry of cultural practices and economic activities.