Modern History (Politics of Separatism) by Shivlal Gupta

Model Answer

Question #1. Lucknow Pact between the Congress and Muslim League was an acceptance of the separate interests of the two communities. In light of the above statement, explain the fallouts of the Pact on Indian freedom movement.

Approach:

•   Briefly introduce about the Lucknow Pact
•   Discuss in short the terms of the pact
•   Explain the negative and positive fallouts of the Lucknow Pact
•   Conclude with the gist of the answer

Hints:

The Lucknow Pact was an agreement reached between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League at a joint session of both the parties held in Lucknow in December 1916. Through the pact, the two parties agreed to allow representation to religious minorities in the provincial legislatures. The Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the Muslim League could be considered an important event in the course of the national struggle for freedom.

Following conditions were accepted by Congress and League:

• While the League agreed to present joint constitutional demands with the Congress to the government, the Congress accepted the Muslim League’s position on separate electorates which would continue till any one community demanded joint electorates.
• The Muslims were also granted a fixed proportion of seats in the legislatures at all-India and provincial levels.
• The Congress and League made the following joint demands to the British:
  • Government should declare that it would confer self government on Indians at an early date.
  • The representative assemblies at the central as well as provincial level should be further expanded with an elected majority and more powers given to them.
  • The term of the legislative council should be five years.
  • The salaries of the Secretary of State for India should be paid by the British treasury and not drawn from Indian funds.
  • Half the members of the viceroy’s and provincial governors’ executive councils should be Indians.

There is no doubt that the Lucknow Pact was a sincere attempt to strike unity between the Congress and the Muslim League. But at the same time, it was also responsible for sowing the seeds of Muslim separatism, which finally resulted in the demand for a separate homeland for the Muslims.

The negative fallouts of Lucknow Pact were:

• The three communal points in Lucknow pact were:
  • The number of Muslims in the provincial legislatures should be laid down province by province.
  • Muslims should be given 1/3 representation in Central Govt.
  • There should be separate electorates for all communities until they ask for joint electorate.
• While the effort of the Congress and the Muslim League to put up a united front was a far-sighted one, the acceptance of the principle of separate electorates by the Congress implied that the Congress and the League came together as separate political entities. This was a major landmark in the evolution of the two-nation theory by the Muslim League.
• It was under the Lucknow Pact, that the Muslims were recognized as the separate community, with separate interests and which can be taken care of by Muslims only. Even Gandhiji was critical of the Pact and pointed out that it amounted to treating Hindus and Muslims as separate from each other.
• Also, it was earliest phase of national movement. While the leaders of the two groups came together, efforts to bring together the masses from the two communities were not considered. When the mass phase of national movement started, people were divided on communal lines
• The Muslim league got the veto power to stop any Bill from being passed by the provision that any community can stop a Bill through a three-fourth majority, thus bringing in an obstructionist method in functioning of legislatures and blockading pro-freedom demands made by Congress.

Conclusion:

The controversial decision to accept the principle of separate electorates represented a serious desire on the part of the Congress to allay minority fears of majority domination. Moreover, there was a large amount of enthusiasm generated among the people by this reunion. Even the government decided to placate the nationalists by declaring its intent to grant self-government to Indians in times to come, as contained in Montagu’s August 1917 declaration. Another positive contribution of the pact was that it paved the way for Hindu-Muslim cooperation in coming years in the Khilafat movement and the Non-cooperation movement in 1920.

Question #2. Analyse the circumstances, between 1942 and 1947, that led to freedom and partition of India. Also,explain the role played by Muslim league in complicating the process of transfer of power.

Approach

• The question focuses on 2 pillars of 1) the circumstances, between 1942 and 1947, that led to freedom and partition of India. 2) the role played by Muslim league in complicating the process of transfer of power .
• The perspective of the question demand views of the aspirants with respect analysisof the circumstances, between 1942 and 1947, that led to freedom and partition of India, and explanation of  the role played by Muslim league in complicating the process of transfer of power.
• Introduction (Summary of key demand of the question, along with necessary facts).
• Conclusion by summing up the gist of the answer.

Hints:

The Partition of India was the division of British India into two independent Dominions: India and Pakistan.

The circumstances, between 1942 and 1947, that led to freedom and partition of India:

• August Offer: Linlithgow announced the August Offer (August 1940) which proposed dominion status as the objective for India and no future constitution to be adopted without the consent of minorities among other provisions. The Muslim League welcomed the veto assurance given to the League, and reiterated its position that partition was the only solution to the deadlock.
• Cripps Mission: Not wishing to lose the support of the—the Muslim League, Unionists of Punjab, and the Princes—Cripps's offer included a clause stating that no part of the British Indian Empire would be forced to join the post-war Dominion. The League rejected the offer, seeing this clause as insufficient in meeting the principle of Pakistan.As a result of that proviso, the proposals were also rejected by the Congress, which, since its founding  was a representative of all Indians of all faiths.
• Quit India Resolution: The great significance was that the movement placed the demand for independence on the immediate agenda of the national movement. After Quit India, there could be no retreat. The movement established the truth that it was no longer possible to rule India without the wishes of Indians.  In this struggle, the common people displayed unparalleled heroism and militancy.
• Changes after World war-II

1. 1. The end of the War resulted in a change in balance of global power—the UK was no more a big power while the USA and USSR emerged as superpowers, both of which favoured freedom for India.
   2. The new Labour government was more sympathetic to Indian demands.
   3. Throughout Europe, there was a wave of socialistradical governments.
   4. British soldiers were weary and tired and the British economy lay shattered. (By 1945 the British government in London owed India £1.2 billion and was being drained by the US Lend-Lease agreement, which was finally paid off only in 2006.)
   5. There was an anti-imperialist wave in South-East Asia—in Vietnam and Indonesia—resisting efforts to replant French and Dutch rule there

• Change in Government’s Attitude:Sporadic, localised and often extremely militant and united mass action by workers, peasants and states’ peoples which took the form of a countrywide strike wave. This kind of activity was occasioned by the INA Release Movement, Royal Indian Navy (RIN) revolt, Tebhaga movement, Worli revolt, Punjab KisanMorchas, Travancore peoples’ struggle (especially the Punnapra-Vayalar episode) and the Telangana peasant revolt.
• Officials feared another Congress revolt, a revival of the 1942 situation but much more dangerous because of a likely combination of attacks on communications, agrarian revolts, labour trouble, army disaffection joined by government officials and the police in the presence of INA men with some military experience.
• The Cabinet Mission: The Attlee government announced in February 1946 the decision to send a high-powered mission of three British cabinet members to India to find out ways and means for a negotiated, peaceful transfer of power to India.
• Communal Holocaust: From August 16, 1946, the Indian scene was rapidly transformed. There were communal riots on an unprecedented scale, which left around several thousands dead. al riots and the unworkability of the CongressLeague coalition compelled many in early 1947 to think in terms of accepting the so far unthinkable idea of partition.
• Attlee’s Statement of February 20, 1947:Clement Attlee, the British prime minister, sensing the trouble all around, made an announcement on February 20, 1947. The British House of Commons declared the British intention of leaving the Indian subcontinent.
• Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947:it was a freedom-with-partition formula.

The role played by Muslim league in complicating the process of transfer of power:

• After 1937: After the Muslim League performed badly in the 1937 provincial elections, it decided to resort to extreme communalism. There began a tendency to project the Muslims, not as a minority but as a separate nation.
• Pakistan Resolution—Lahore (March 1940) The Muslim League passed a resolution calling for “grouping of geographically contiguous areas where Muslims are in majority (North-West, East) into independent states in which constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign and adequate safeguards to Muslims where they are in minority”.
• Response to August Offer: The Muslim League welcomed the veto assurance given to the League, and reiterated its position that partition was the only solution to the deadlock.
• Response to Cripps Mission: Muslim League criticised the idea of a single Indian Union.
• Response to Quit India Movement: The Muslim League opposed the movement, fearing that if the British left India at that time, the minorities would be oppressed by the Hindus.
• Response to Wavell Plan: The League wanted all Muslim members to be League nominees, because it feared that since the aims of other minorities—depressed classes, Sikhs, Christians, etc.—were the same as those of the Congress, this arrangement would reduce the League to a one-third minority.
• Direct Action call of Muslim League:From August 16, 1946, the Indian scene was rapidly transformed. There were communal riots on an unprecedented scale, which left around several thousands dead. The worst-hit areas were Calcutta, Bombay, Noakhali, Bihar and Garhmukteshwar (United Provinces)
• Interim Government (September 2, 1946–August 15, 1947):The League refused to attend informal meetings of the cabinet to take decisions. The League questioned the decisions and appointments made by the Congress members. Liaqat Ali Khan as the finance minister restricted and encumbered the efficient functioning of other ministries. The League had only sought a foothold in the government to fight for Pakistan.
• The League did not attend the Constituent Assembly which had its first meeting on December 9, 1946.

Conclusion:

The communal riots and the unworkability of the CongressLeague coalition compelled many in early 1947 to think in terms of accepting the so far unthinkable idea of partition.On July 5, 1947 the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act which was based on the Mountbatten Plan, The Act provided for the creation of two independent dominions of India and Pakistan with effect from August 15, 1947.