Anthropology Optional (Knowing forms Religion in simple Societies) by Sourabh Mishra

Model Answer

Question #1. Discuss various anthropological approaches to study primitive religion.

Answers

2. Introduction:

The religious studies approach seeks to understand other faith traditions on their own terms. The approaches to studying religion are based on thinkers like- Max Müller, William Robertson Smith, Edward Burnett Tylor, Emile Durkheim, and Ninian Smart.

3. Evolutionary Approach to Study of Religion:

The evolutionary perspective on religion proposes that religious ideation is natural and plausible because innate mechanisms are the product of evolution. It leads humans to imagine reality through egocentric, anthropocentric, animistic, or teleological processes. The evolutionary theories are based on Darwin’s biological theory of evolution.

Thinkers Perspective:

• E.B. Tylorexpounds in his book Primitive Culture, that animism is the earliest and most basic religious form of the evolution process.
• Robert Ranulf Marrettdescribes the evolution of religion into five stages, i.e., Animism, Animatism, Nature worship, Polytheism, and Monotheism.
• Emile Durkheimsays totemism is the most elementary form of religion.
• Max Mullersays that naturalism is the earliest form of religion.
• Anthony Wallacedescribes the evolution of world religions into four stages:
  • Shamanic religion: It is organized in terms of individual and shamanic cults. This type of religious organization is characteristic of food gatherers.
  • Communal religion is organized in terms of individual, shamanic, and communal cults.
  • Polytheistic religion: In these types of religions, the individual believes in many gods.
  • Monotheistic religion: The monotheistic religion is organized in terms of the individual, shamanic, communal, and ecclesiastic but believes in one Supreme Being.
• According to Frazer, the institution of divine kingship derived from the belief that the well-being of the social and natural order.

Auguste Comte’s Theory:

Auguste Comte has given three stages in the evolution of human thinking. His law of three stages provides a sociological dimension to the development of human thinking. According to him, the three stages passed by human thinking are:

Theological Stage- According to Comte, human societies moved historically from a theological stage. In which the world and the place of humans are explained in terms of gods, spirits, and magic. Comte classified the theological stage into three stages:

Theological or fictitious stage-

• Fetishism: The first and primary stage of theological thinking is fetishism. It is an emotional attachment that leads to a belief that there is some living spirit in non-living objects.
• Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals.
• Monotheism: It is a belief in one God that replaced the belief in many gods.

Metaphysical Stage-

• Metaphysical stage of society, people viewed the world and events as natural reflections of human tendencies. It is an abstract transcendental entity that would replace the belief in personal concrete God

Scientific Stage-

• The scientific or positive stage is not only the most evolved stage but also this stage is best for mankind.
• Comte hoped that humans would perfect their knowledge of the world and make real progress to improve the welfare of humanity.

Comte's law of three stages has been criticized by:

• According to Bogardus, Comte failed to postulate a fourth mode of thinking, i.e., socialized thinking, a system of thought which would emphasize the purpose of building constructive, just, and harmonious societies.

Psychological Approach to Study of Religion:

The psychology of religion tries to understand the cause-effect relationships between religious experiences and religious consciousness to be able to predict behaviours. It aims to study religious consciousness with investigations into religious behaviour patterns.

Origin of the concept-

The nineteenth century saw a complete turnaround in the intellectual climate in Europe where evolutionary approaches based on Darvin genesis were questioned. It led to the development of psychological and other approaches based upon religion.

Thinker Perspective-

• Sir James Frazer - Religion is a conciliation of powers and superior to the men, who believe in the direct control of nature and human life.
• George Galloway - Religion is a faith in a power to satisfy emotional needs and gain stability in life through worship and service of God.
• Robert Ranulph Marrett- According to him, religion is a profound emotional response to various aspects that are usually characterized by emotional overtones.

The theories are based on the emotive factors according to various scholars:

• Wilhelm Wundtsays that religion is a projection of fear into the environment.
• Rudolf Ottosays that religion is identical to numinous feelings pertaining to divinity.
• According to William James, religion is not associated with any specific type of emotion.

Criticism of Psychological Approach to Religion

Religion forces people to rely on an outside authority, rather than becoming self-reliant. It imposes irrational rules of good and bad behaviour. It divides people and is a cause of conflict and war. The hierarchical structure of most religions is anti-democratic and offends basic human rights.

Functional Approach to Study of Religion:

A functional definition of religion is concerned about the function religion performs for society and the individual. According to Functionalism, religion acts as a conservative force by reinforcing social norms and promoting social solidarity.

Thinker Perspective-

Emile Durkheim: Religion provides social cohesion and social control to maintain society in social solidarity.  Collective consciousness, which is the fusion of all our individual consciousness, creates a reality of its own.

Malinowski: He argued religion had more specific functions than Durkheim. Religion helps individuals to deal with the psychological stresses which occur in times of social change- such as births, marriage, and deaths. For example, The Trobriand Islanders used religious rituals when fishing in the dangerous, unpredictable ocean, but not in the calm lagoons.

Talcott Parsons: He says the main function of religion is to maintain the social order. Religion promotes value consensus. It can also help people make sense of contradictory events. Parsons belief in religious rituals as help to maintain social order in times of social change such as ceremonial rituals, birth, and death.

Social Functions of Religion-

Religion explains individual suffering. It is a source of social cohesion. Religion takes care of social welfare. The religious scriptures are storehouses of knowledge. It is the agency of social control. Religion controls and affects economic life- Max Weber.

Universal Functions of Religion-

• Religion is an instrument of social integration. Talcott Parsons: Social control in the present society brought through individual control and moral responsibilities or obligations.
• Religion is a source of conflict. It gives meaning to subjective experiences. It helps in normative reinforcement. It stimulates aesthetic expression. It is a source of social welfare. It strengthens moral values.

Criticism of Functional Approach of Religion-

Religion does not always promote harmony. It promotes conflicts within the religion. Ignorance is the role of religion can play in promoting social change. Secularism led religion to perform fewer functions in society. Functionalism may be less relevant.

Conclusion:

The evolutionary theories are based on Darwin’s biological theory of evolution. However, the nineteenth century saw a complete turnaround in the intellectual climate in Europe where evolutionary approaches based on Darvin’s genesis were questioned. It led to the development of psychological and other approaches.

The Psychoanalytic theory has been given by Sigmund Freud. But it fails to lead the psychological view of the human regarding religion. It was questioned and led to the emergence of the functional approach to the study of religion.

According to Functionalism, religion acts as a conservative force by reinforcing social norms and promoting social solidarity. It is the key idea of the functionalist theory of religion. Religion is successful to lead the functionality of the society.

Question #2. How do you relate the concepts of ‘Sacred’ and ‘Profane’ in Durkheim’s theory of Religion with a focus on the role of Totem?

Answers

Émile Durkheim, a prominent sociologist, explored the concepts of the sacred and the profane in his theory of religion. Durkheim argued that religion is a social phenomenon that reflects and reinforces the collective conscience and values of a society. The totem, a significant symbol in some Indigenous cultures, plays a crucial role in understanding Durkheim's ideas about the sacred and the profane. Let's explore these concepts and their relation to the totem:

1. Sacred and Profane: According to Durkheim, the sacred and the profane are two fundamental categories that categorize and give meaning to the social and natural world.

- Sacred: The sacred refers to those things, symbols, rituals, or ideas that are regarded as extraordinary, transcendent, and set apart from the everyday realm. It represents the collective beliefs, values, and moral codes of a society. The sacred is endowed with special significance and evokes a sense of reverence, awe, and social cohesion.

- Profane: The profane, on the other hand, encompasses the ordinary, mundane aspects of life that lack religious or symbolic significance. It includes the everyday activities, objects, and spaces that are considered commonplace and secular. The profane is not inherently valued or ritualized in the same way as the sacred.

2. Totem: In Durkheim's theory, the totem plays a central role in understanding the sacred. A totem is a symbol, often an animal or a plant, that represents a particular social group, such as a clan or a tribe. The totem serves as a powerful emblem that embodies the sacredness and collective identity of the group.

- Collective Representation: Durkheim argued that the totem functions as a collective representation of the sacred. It becomes a focal point around which social cohesion, rituals, and beliefs are organized. The totem symbolizes the shared values, history, and spiritual connections of the group, reinforcing the collective conscience.

- Collective Effervescence: The rituals and ceremonies associated with the totem generate a sense of collective effervescence, a heightened state of shared emotional energy and solidarity among the group members. Through participation in totemic rituals, individuals come together, reaffirming their social bonds and reinforcing the moral order of the society.

- Symbolic Integration: The totem, as a sacred symbol, integrates individuals into a larger social entity. It represents the collective identity and values, providing a framework for understanding the world and one's place within it. The totemic beliefs and rituals contribute to social integration, promoting a sense of belonging, cooperation, and shared purpose.

3. Durkheim's Perspective: Durkheim's theory of religion and the role of the totem illustrate his understanding of the sacred and the profane as social constructs. The totem, as a sacred symbol, represents the collective consciousness and serves as a focal point for social cohesion and meaning-making. It distinguishes the sacred realm from the profane everyday life, providing individuals with a framework for understanding their social world and reinforcing social solidarity.

It is important to note that Durkheim's theory of religion and the role of the totem were developed based on his analysis of Australian Aboriginal totemism. While his ideas have been influential, they are not without critique and should be understood within the context of his time and the specific cultural examples he examined. Additionally, interpretations and understandings of the sacred and the profane may vary across different religious and cultural contexts.