PSIR Optional (Thinkers in study of Politics) by Viraj C Rane

Model Answer

Question #1. State is prior to individual – Aristotle. Explain. 10 marks (150 words)

Ans

Approach:

• Introduction: Aristotle’s conception of state.
• Body: Meaning of the phrase ‘state is prior to individual’ and his justification
• Conclusion: Comparison with Plato’s conception of state. 

For Aristotle, as with Plato, the state is all-important. According to Aristotle, the state began for the satisfaction of basic wants, but as it developed, it came to perform more elevated aims essential for good life. Aristotle says: ‘The state exists not just for the sake of life, but for the sake of a good life.’

The state, according to Aristotle, was the highest form of political union, for it represented the pinnacle of social evolution. It was necessary, for it provided a framework for the satisfaction of basic wants and also ensured a means to secure and realize good life in a uniquely human sense. An individual found fulfilment from the advantages made possible by a state through its common endeavours, and one who did not feel its need was either an “angel” or a “beast”.

The state was prior to the individual, in the sense that it provided opportunities for the achievement of full humanity. Social affiliation gave to individuals their species identity: All associations are in the nature of parts of the political association. Men journey together with a view to some particular advantage, and by way of providing some particular thing needed for the purposes of life; and similarly, the political association seems to have come together originally and to continue in existence, for the sake of the general advantage which it brings.

The state was an instrument for an individual’s self-perfection. Far from being artificially or contractually created, it evolved naturally. Aristotle contended that man by nature was a political animal, making the state necessary and desirable. The significant point to note is that Aristotle’s reference to nature confirmed the debate between nomos (convention) and phusis (nature) that dominated Greek political theory in the fifth century BC. As advocates of the phusis argument, both Plato and Aristotle asserted that the state and its laws were more than a product of convention. It was a natural institution reflecting individuals’ needs and purposes, given human gregariousness and sociability.

Question #2. American Constitution is a manifestation of John Locke’s political ideas. Critically examine. 15 marks (250 words)

Ans

Approach:

• Introduction: Locke’s conception of state and his rejection of authoritarian conceptions of state till then.
• Body: How basic tenets of Locke’s like liberty, conception of property influenced American constitution. His influence on constitutional makers and later day leaders.
• Conclusion: The continued legacy of Locke’s ideas

John Locke has influenced the United States of America arguably more than any other political philosopher in history. As the father of classical liberalism, Locke pioneered the American principle that the government is legitimized through the consent of the governed and exists to protect their rights and liberties. Prior to Locke, many governments were characterized by a strong central government and often by a sovereign monarch in line with the arguments of Thomas Hobbes that an absolute monarch was necessary for a good government.

Locke refutes these notions by stating that government exists as the result of a social contract between the people. Therefore, the government should be limited and exist to protect the rights of its citizens. Locke based his philosophy on the notion that man is cooperative by nature but needs government in order to be secure in his property – a term that Locke defines very broadly to include a person’s life, liberty, conscience, possessions, and estate. Therefore, he believes that the primary function of government must be to protect its citizens’ property. If a government fails to adequately secure the property of its citizens, then that government loses its legitimacy and it becomes appropriate to establish a new government. Locke also argues that there should be a separation between church and state, that individuals are born with certain freedoms and liberties, that all people are born with certain natural and inalienable rights, and that everyone has the right to life, liberty, and estates.

Locke’s ideas are considered to be the cornerstone of American political thought. Sentiments like “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,” “We the People,” and “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal” are all fundamentally Lockean concepts. Limited government, personal freedom and liberty, natural rights, a government that is legitimized as a contract with its people in order to preserve their rights, a separation of church and state, and the right to life, liberty, and estates –  are all Lockean notions. Other classic American ideals that are derived from Locke include the notion of a separation of powers, checks and balances, and representative government.

Locke’s philosophy is universally agreed among scholars to have been tremendously important to the founders of the American government. His arguments exist as a basis for many of America’s most important foundational documents such as the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. Indeed, Locke’s philosophy was so important to Thomas Jefferson in particular that his words are copied nearly verbatim in the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson can aptly be described as Locke’s disciple because of how frequently his work parallels Locke’s theories and rhetoric.

While he is most readily cited for his influence on the Declaration of Independence, Locke’s relevance can be discussed in a variety of other early American sources. George Stephens writes in Locke, Jefferson, and the Justices that Locke’s influence on the United States is further pronounced by the fact that Jefferson adhered so closely to Locke’s principles throughout his time as president. Stephens traces the impact that Locke had on the contemporary United States through Jefferson’s presidency and the courts. Indeed, Stephens goes as far as to examine George H. W. Bush’s and Bill Clinton’s presidencies to understand the role that Locke’s philosophy plays in modern America.

In the modern world, Locke’s principles are still relevant to our political debates. Even today some people in the US invoke Locke’s arguments to argue their position on things like what tax structure the government should employ, whether the death penalty should be legal, and whether excessive campaign finances should be banned. Without Locke, it is said that we exist under the regime of the Leviathan, trapped in a life that is nasty, brutish, and short. Almost all scholars agree that Locke was incredibly important to the foundation of the United States, but the exact extent to which has been forgotten. It is said that Americans derive their entire identities from Locke. They are his legacy.