Sociology Optional (Fundamentals of Sociology) by Smriti Rao Mishra

Model Answer

Question #1. Can Sociology be considered as a truly scientific discipline? Give reasons. 10 marks (150 words)

There is a major debate in sociological theory about whether or not sociology is a science. Early thinkers such as Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim, were enamoured by the scientific nature of natural sciences and yearned to make sociology a scientific discipline. Positive sociologists held that the scientific method could be applied to social science to produce social facts and universal principles.

Science is defined as a methodology of empirical investigation, aimed to pursue objectivity, quantifiability, universal testability and inter-subjective reliability. 

Arguments in favour of sociology as a science

August Comte opined that sociology must follow the method of natural sciences. He believed in the unilinear theory of evolution and opined that human knowledge and society pass through certain definite progressive evolutionary stages. According to Auguste Comte: “Sociology is a science because it adopts and applies the scientific method. Sociology does make use of scientific methods in the study of its subject matter. Hence Sociology is a science.”

According to Durkheim, all elements of society, including morality and religion, are part of the natural world and can be studied scientifically. The foundational claim for Durkheim’s sociology, and what is to make up the subject matter for sociology, is the existence of what Durkheim calls social facts. In Rules of Sociological Method, Durkheim outlined the approach to scientific study of social reality by defining the approach, manner, classification and explanation of social facts. Social fact is a methodological tool which is defined as:-

 “a category of facts which present very special characteristics: they consist of manners of acting, thinking, and feeling external to the individual, which are invested with a coercive power by virtue of which they exercise control over him”.

 Furthermore, in his study on Suicide, Durkheim exemplified the usage of statistical methodology and comparative study.   

Objectivity is possible in Sociology:

Like natural sciences Sociology also makes objective study. Objectivity refers to detachment from personal biases and opinions. Max Weber suggested the usage of ‘Verstehen’ and ‘Value Neutrality’as a method through which society can be understood in a scientific manner through social action.  

Sociology describes cause-effect relationship:

Like natural sciences Sociology also makes objective study. Objectivity refers to detachment from personal biases and opinions. Max Weber suggested the usage of ‘Verstehen’ and ‘Value Neutrality’as a method through which society can be understood in a scientific manner through social action.

Karl Popper and Thomas Kuhn demystified the holiness of Science by suggesting that science is itself based on theories and paradigms which reflect the organic nature of the study. Therefore, The conclusion is drawn that sociology barely meets any of the rigid criteria traditionally associated with the natural sciences. Sociology is viewed as having a position of theory and argument which is labeled “inconoclasticskepticism.” 

Robert Bierstedt:

Robert Bierstedt in his book “The social order” clearly explain the nature of Sociology in the following way:

(a) Sociology is a social and not a natural science.

(b) Sociology is a positive and not a normative science.

(c) Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science.

(d) Sociology is an abstract science and not a concrete science.

Peter Berger: He rejected the view to consider Sociology as a science. He developed his views in the book he and Thomas Luckmann published in 1966, entitled The Social Construction of Reality. Human beings in their social lives construct the reality around them so that reality is bound to a particular human society. What is real for a particular society in a particular place is not necessarily real for others elsewhere. Consequently, a variety of societies construct a variety of realities

Lack of Generalisation:

Sociology can’t make generalisations like natural sciences which is universally applicable. Sociology deals with human behaviour and no two individual are alike. Hence the conclusions drawn by Sociology can’t be uniform or universally applicable. 

Terminological Inefficiency:

Sociology suffers from terminological inefficiency. Sociology has not yet became able to develop adequate set of scientific terms. Many terms used in Sociology is vague and carry different meaning to different persons. For example the term caste and class has not yet acquired clear meaning. 

Sociology as a body of knowledge has itself evolved over time and space. While the debate continues, sociologists have developed rules and methodologies which enable them to arrive at reliable and valid examination of social reality. 

Question #2. Examine the significance of Variables in Sociological research. Illustrate with examples.  15 marks (250 words)

Earl R Babbie in his The Practice of Social Research defines a variable as a logical set of attributes. Variables are those parameters whose value varies as situation changes and they are key elements of a research. Variables are of two types:

Independent or fixed variables whose value does not depend on any other factors.

Dependent variables - whose value depends upon the value of independent variables and maybe some other dependent variable as well. 

Demographic variable:-A variable that is neither independent nor dependent, but sometimes can be used by researchers to describe the nature and distribution of the sample.

Confounding or intervening variable:-This variable affects the causal relationship of the two variables and makes the relationship weaker or stronger.

Sometimes the variables are classified according to their own nature, such as 

1.Quantitative variables- A quantitative variable is represented by a number and has a measuring instrument and is divided into two types, continuous and discontinuous. A discontinuous variable is a value that can have two or more possible values but has a limited number of values

2.Qualitative variables– A qualitative variable (e.g. Race and Sex) is a variable that shows the quality of the attributes and cannot be measured by measuring instruments

Variables in sociological research 

In any sociological experiment, the researcher needs to identify the variables and then establish which of them are dependent and which are independent. After that, inter-linkages between these variables have to be established. 

For example, in studying the educational level of an area, education level is a dependent variable, which depends on other variables like parent's income, schools available, teacher's quality, cultural values and so on. 

Methods to analyze Variables:

Method used to establish and analyze the relationship between variables is known as ‘multivariate’ or ‘variable analysis’. In sociology, this was earliest used by Durkheim in his study of suicide in which he studied effect of various independent variables like religion, gender, marital status on dependent variable viz suicide. Proper weightage has to be given to each variable according to its impact on outcome dependent variable. Other modern methods to establish correlation between variables are – regression analysis, chi-square test but they are more statistically driven.

Durkheim developed and used the method of multivariate or variable analysis to establish and analyze the relationship between different variables. In his study of suicide, he studied the effects of various independent variables like religion, gender, marital status, etc. on the rate of suicide. 

Tuckman recommended certain considerations to be taken into account while selecting variable:

Variable should be related to the theory with which the researcher is working

Variable must be selected in view of scope of design of the experiment

Some practical considerations be taken into account like number of variables, time, nature, type of control

Variables are important to understand because they are the basic units of the information studied and interpreted in research studies. Researchers carefully analyze and interpret the value(s) of each variable to make sense of how things relate to each other in a descriptive study or what has happened in an experiment. Variables are therefore an important instrument in sociological research as they help in better understanding of various social phenomena and establishing correlations and causal relationships between them.