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History: Religious Movements

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    History
  • Published
    02-Apr-2020

Religious Movements

Jainism

  • Jainism is one of the oldest religious traditions of the world. A great generation of tirthankaras, acaryas, saints, and scholars belonged to this tradition.
  • Jainism is one of the religions whose origin can be traced back to the twenty four teachers (tirthankaras - ones who establishes a path or ford), through whom their faith is believed to have been handed down.
  • The term ‘jaina’ is derived from the term ‘jina’,and the term ‘jina’ is the common name for the supreme souls who are totally free from all feelings of attachment, aversion, etc. The etymological meaning of the word ‘jina’ is conqueror.
  • It is the common name given to the twenty four teachers (tirthankaras), because they have conquered all passions (raga and dvesa) and have attained liberation. Jainism in its essence is the religion of heroic souls who are jinas or conquerors of their self.
  • The devotees of jina are called ‘jaina’, and the religion propounded by jina is called the ‘Jaina Religion.’
  • The first of these teachers was Rsabhadeva and the last was Vardhamana, also known as Mahavira (the Great Hero). He is said to have lived in the sixth century B.C. as a contemporary of Gautama Buddha.
  • Mahavira is the successor of Parvanatha, who lived in the ninth century B.C. The contribution of Jainism to Indian culture, spirituality, and philosophy is really immense. It is a religion of praxis than of faith. Jainism is a sramanic
  • The word ‘Sramana’ means an ascetic or a Thus asceticism and mysticism, meditation and contemplation, silence and solitude, practice of virtues like non-violence, renunciation, celibacy, self-control, etc. are distinguishing characteristics of this tradition.
  • Jainism was also instrumental for a radical change in the social life of Indians. Jainism has the universal message of non-violence.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF JAINISM

  • The advent of Jainism in the sixth century BC was expected, as many people were beginning to oppose the hierarchical organization and formalized ritualism of the Vedic religion.
  • The failure of the Vedic religion to meet popular needs, the meaningless forms of sacrifices which did not provide release from samsara, and the merciless killing of animals in the sacrificial context forced the Jinas to provide the people with a new orientation and new interpretation.
  • Their teachings laid primary emphasis on personal training, and taught that salvation is attainable to anyone willing to learn it.
  • They stressed on personal effort and practice, not theoretical speculation, and proof of their validity was found in personal experience, not textual authority or logical argument.
  • Jains hold the view that the Jaina religion is eternal and has been revealed again and again in the succeeding periods of the world by innumerable Tirthanakaras.
  • It is believed that all the Tirthankaras reached moksa at the time of their death, as a result of their personal effort; they are regarded as ‘Gods’ and are worshipped by the Jains. Jains believe that it is on the authority of the teachings of the omniscient liberated saints (Jinas or Tirthankaras) that we can have real knowledge about certain spiritual matters. The teachings and lives of the saints show the possibility and path to attain liberation.
  • The twenty- third tirthankara, the immediate predecessor of Mahavira, was Parvanatha, and he preached the doctrine of love and ahimsa. He enjoined four vows, which are, (i) Not to destroy life (ahimsa) (ii) Not to lie (satya) (iii) Not to steal (asteya) and (iv) Not to own property (aparigraha). His great successor Mahavira added the fifth vow of chastity (brahmacarya).

MAHAVIRA

  • Mahavira was the twenty-fourth tirthankara. Jainism is closely associated with Vardhamana Mahavira, who lived from 540 to 468 B.C. and established the central doctrines of Jainism. He was born in Northern India, in the town of Vyshali, into a royal family.
  • His father was Siddhartha Maharaja who ruled Kundapura, and his mother was Priyakarini. Vardhamana lived as a householder for thirty years. At the age of thirty he left his wife, child, and family and started a life of total renunciation and asceticism.
  • Mahavira passed twelve years of his ascetic life with equanimity, performing hard and long penances, and enduring all afflictions and calamities with an undisturbed mind. At the end, the ascetic obtained omniscience; he became jina, the victorious and Mahavira, the great hero.
  • He realized his true self and attained omniscience by practising rigorous austerities and penances. He understood the nature of physical bondage and ways of achieving total liberation from bondage, and thus, liberation from rebirth and bodily existence.
  • The ideal state of freedom can be achieved only through a radial ascetical life, the essence of which is total renunciation of all bodily comforts and all material objects.
  • He says, “It is owing to attachment that a person commits violence, utters lies, commits theft, indulges in sex, and develops a yearning for unlimited hoarding.” (Bhakta-parijna).
  • Modern Jains believe that his message is full of pragmatic optimism, self-reliance, self-discipline, and self-purification to develop the inherent and infinite potentialities of the human self.
  • A glimpse into his life shows that he was an embodiment of non-violence and compassion. He taught five great vows and initiated many people into this way of life, established the four fold order, (monks, nuns, male lay-votaries and female votaries.) and emerged a teacher of many monks, a renowned preacher, and a founder of a new religion.
  • Lord Mahavira passed the last thirty years of his life as the omniscient tirthankara. By the time of his death at the age of seventy- two, a large group of people embraced this new faith.
  • Mahavira’s close disciples led the movement after his death, and Jainism spread from the north-east of India to the north-west and even to the south, especially to the present day state of Karnataka.

SACRED SCRIPTURES OF JAINISM

  • There are various opinions with regard to the classification of Jaina texts. Each of the main sects of Jainism recognizes its own body of sacred scriptures though many texts are common to all. Most of the ancient Jain texts are written in Prakrta (an early form of Sanskrit).

The general outline of the canon is as follows. It is divided into six sections and contains either forty-five or forty-six books.

  1. The twelve Angas or limbs.
  2. The twelve Upangas, or secondary limbs
  • The ten Painnas, or ‘Scattered pieces’
  1. The six Cheya-Suttas
  2. Individual texts (two)
  3. The four Mula-Suttas

THE CONCEPT OF GOD

  • Jainism does not believe in a personal God or a creator God. According to the Jaina philosophical works, the definition of God is as follows: God is that soul who has completely removed all the Karmas.
  • The defining characteristic of Godhood is identical with that of liberation itself. To attain liberation is to attain Godhood.
  • The term ‘Isvara’ can very well apply to the soul that has become powerful by attaining its perfectly pure nature constituted of four characteristics, which are , infinite knowledge, infinite vision, infinite power, and infinite bliss.
  • By constant practice of spiritual discipline, spiritually right knowledge, and right conduct, the means of liberation gradually develop and ultimately attain perfection.
  • And when they attain perfection, all the coverings get removed and all the bondages are cut off. As a result, the soul’s natural qualities get fully manifested.
  • To attain this state is to attain Godhood. Though the Jains reject God as the creator of the world, they think it is necessary to meditate on and worship the liberated, perfect souls. Prayers are offered to them for guidance and inspiration.
  • According to the Jain religion, worship is not for seeking mercy and pardon. Inspite of the absence of a creator-God, the religious spirit of the Jaina lacks neither in internal fervour nor in external ceremonial expressions. As the lay community increased in Jainism, there evolved also rituals and religious practices.

THE CONCEPT OF SOUL

  • The Jaina holds that every living and non-living being is gifted with souls. All souls are not equally conscious, but every soul has the potential to attain infinite consciousness, power, and happiness. The soul is inherently perfect. These qualities are inherent in the very nature of the soul.
  • Each Jiva (soul) is eternally associated with Ajiva (non-sentient or non-conscious being) because of Karman. They are obstructed by karma, just as the natural light of the sun is hindered by clouds.
  • By removing the karmas, a soul can remove bondage and regain its natural perfections. The limitations that we find in any individual’s soul are due to the material body with which the soul has identified itself.
  • The Karma or the sum of the past life of a soul - its past thought, speech, and activity – generates in it certain blind cravings and passions that seek satisfaction.
  • Those cravings in a soul attract to it particular sorts of matter-particles and organize them into the body unconsciously desired. Jaina writers point out that bondage or the fall of the soul begins in thought.
  • They therefore speak of two kinds of bondage: (1) internal or ideal bondage, that is to say, the soul’s bondage to bad disposition (bhava-bandha), and (2) its effect, which is material bondage, that is to say, the soul’s actual association with matter (dravya-bandha).

JAINA ETHICS

The most important part of Jaina philosophy is its ethics. Metaphysics or epistemology is useful for the Jaina insofar as it guides him to right conduct. The goal of right conduct is salvation (moksa), which negatively means the removal of all bondage of the soul, and positively, the attainment of liberation.

  • Twelve Vows: In the activities dealing with spiritual discipline for the layman, there occurs the exposition of twelve vows. They are: the gross vow of refraining from violence, the gross vow of refraining from telling lies, the gross vow of refraining from taking anything which is not given, the vow of refraining from sexual activities, the gross vow of limiting one’s possessions, the vow of limiting the area of acts that are not virtuous, the vow of limiting the quality of things that could be used once as also of things that could be used repeatedly, the vow to abstain from harmful activities that serve no useful purpose, the vow of remaining completely equanimous for a fixed period of time, the vow of reducing the limits of the area set forth in the sixth vow for a limited period of time, the vow of observing fast and living like a monk for certain days, and the vow of sharing things with deserving guests.
  • Pancha Vrathas: Jaina writers are not unanimous about the necessity of all the above steps. Some of them select the first five, namely, the five great vows (Pancha Vrathas) as sufficient for the perfection of conduct.
  • Ahimsa or Non-violence: Among the five, ahimsa is the most important vow. It is really a positive virtue based upon universal love and mercy towards all beings. Ahimsa is abstinence from all injury to life, life that exists not simply in the moving beings (trasa), but also in some nonmoving ones (sthavara), such as plants and beings inhabiting the bodies of the earth. Abstinence from injury to life must be observed in thought, word, and deed –Mana, Vachana, and Kaya respectively. Hence the principle of Ahimsa – non-violence, naturally implies purity of thought, word, and deed. Thus, ahimsa vritha is binding to all members of the society, whether householder or ascetic. In the case of the householder, it is applicable with a limitation. In the case of ascetics, it is to be observed absolutely without any limitation.
  • Satya or Truth: This vow is abstinence from falsehood. The vow of satya or truthfulness consists in speaking what is true, as well as what is pleasant and good. Truthfulness is not only speaking what is true, but speaking what is true as well as good and pleasant. It is also pointed out that for the perfect maintenance of this vow, one must conquer greed, fear and anger.
  • Astheya or ‘Non-stealing’: This vow consists in not taking what is not given. This vow also includes abstinence from evil practices. The vow of asteya or ‘non-stealing’ is based on the idea of the sanctity of property.
  • Brahmacharaya: The vow of brahmacharaya consists in abstaining from all forms of selfindulgence. This refers to purity of personal conduct in the matter of sex. This vow when applied to the ascetic implies absolute celibacy, since a saint who has renounced all possible connections with the outside world is expected to practise strict celibacy. For the complete maintenance of this vow, one must desist from all forms of self-indulgence – external and internal, subtle and gross, mundane and extra-mundane, direct and indirect.
  • Aparigraha or Abstinence from all attachment: The vow of aparigraha consists in abstaining from all attachment to the senses – pleasant sound, touch, colour, taste, and smell. Attachment to the world’s objects means bondage to the world, and the force of this causes rebirth. Liberation is impossible without the withdrawal of attachment. In the case of the ascetic, he must practise non possession strictly in thought, word, and deed. But in the case of the householder, such a complete renunciation will be meaningless. Since the householder is also expected to keep in mind the ultimate goal of life, which is the realization of the true self, he must also practise isolating himself, as far as possible, from attachment to external things. Right knowledge, faith, and conduct jointly bring about liberation consisting in fourfold perfection. When a person, through the harmonious development of these three, succeeds in overcoming the forces of all passions and karmas, old and new, the soul is freed from its bondage to matter and attains liberation. Being free from the obstacles of matter, the soul realizes its inherent potentiality. It attains the fourfold perfection, namely, infinite knowledge, infinite faith, infinite power, and infinite bliss.

JAIN SECTS

  • Shortly after the death of Mahavira, the community split into several sects. There are two important Jain sects, the Svetambaras (wearers of white clothes) and the Digambaras (the naked). Their division was on the basis of nudity.
  • The literal meaning of the word digambara is sky-clad and that of svetambara is white clad. These two sects are divided into a number of sects. The Digambara’s contend that perfection cannot be reached by anyone who wears clothing.
  • The Digambara thinks that a man should abstain from food and possessions, including clothing, to become a saint. They also denied the eligibility of women for salvation. The Digambaras strictly maintain that there can be no salvation without nakedness. Since women cannot go without clothes, they are said to be incapable of salvation. The Digambaras believe that no original canonical text exists now.
  • The Svetambaras still preserve a good number of original scriptures. They believe that having known that the true self consists in the freedom from passions, having realized the strength of the spiritual practice of non-attachment, and having understood the gradual order of undertaking the practice of the means of liberation, one can very well understand a monk’s acceptance of clothing. The only essential point is that when one attains the state of perfect non-attachment, one definitely attains liberation, irrespective of one’s being nude or not. Clothing is not an obstacle to salvation. It is attachment that acts as an obstacle to salvation.
  • The Svetambaras also allow women to enter the monastic order under the assumption that they have a possibility of attaining Nirvana.

Buddhism

  • Buddhism originated as an alternative tradition to the excessive importance given to rituals and sacrifices in Vedic tradition. It was also a reaction to the gross neglect of the social problems of the time, as well as a revolt against the hegemony of the Brahmins in the society.
  • The main causes for the emergence of Buddhism are:
  • Social: A Brahmin centered, caste based, hierarchical set up was prevalent in the society. The authority to interpret the scriptures was vested with the Brahmin. Temples, which were the centres of social life, were controlled by them. Laws of pollution were strictly imposed upon the people of the lower caste. Tribes and Dravidians were out of the caste structure.
  • Economic: Agriculture and cattle rearing were the main source of wealth and livelihood for the people. Brahmins found out ways and means to exploit the lower sections in the society. Kings were made to perform yagas, yajnas, and digvijayas through which the Brahmins benefited a lot. The ordinary people had to contribute a major portion of their income to the kings, Brahmins, and temples.
  • Religious: Mode of worship, rituals, and religious ceremonies were interpreted by the Brahmins to suit their interest. The Vedas, Aranyakas, Mimamsas and Upanishads were written to perpetuate the hegemony of the Brahmins. Metaphysical speculations were at their zenith, which was the prerogative of the educated class. Exploitation by the higher castes and the suffering of the ordinary people continued unabated.
  • It was a time of two extremes: the Vedic, Upanisadic belief in the Absolute supported by sacrifices, rituals (yajnas) and the materialistic philosophy of the Charvaka.
  • Buddha avoided and negated the extremes, and at the same time integrated the positive elements of these two systems.
  • He negated the existence of the soul and the Absolute, but he accepted the belief in the law of karma and the possibility of attaining liberation. His main concern was the welfare of the ordinary people. Though Buddha himself wrote nothing, the early writings were in the Pali and Sanskrit languages.
  • Buddhist scripture is known as Tripitaka (Sanskrit) or Tipitaka (Pali), Three Baskets or Three Traditions.
  • They are vinaya (Disciple), Sutta (Discourse), and Abhidhamma (Doctrinal Elaboration).
  • Buddha was not interested in speculative or theoretical analysis of phenomena, but he was concerned about finding out practical solutions to problems in life.
  • The influence of the early Upanishads is clear in the teachings of Buddha. Compassion and love were the predominant characteristics of Buddha.
  • Charity was the basis of the Buddhist religion. Buddhist spirituality has four stages ahimsa (not harming), maitre (loving kindness), dana (giving), and karuna (compassion).

LIFE OF BUDDHA

  • Gautama or Siddhartha (566-486 B.C), who later came to be known as the Buddha or 'The Enlightened One', was born into a wealthy Kshatriya family, in Lumbini, at the foothills of Nepal. Gautama’s father Shudhodana, a Kshatriya of the Sakya clan, was the king of Kapilavastu (present day Nepal), and his mother was Mahamaya. She had a dream, while on her way to her parents’ home that a white elephant entered her womb, and later Gautama was born at Lumbini. A white elephant is an important symbol for Buddhists even today. On the fifth day of the child’s birth, 108 Brahmins were invited for the naming ceremony, and he was given the name Siddhartha (Siddha- achieved, artha- goal; one who achieved his goal).
  • Many predicted that Siddhartha would become either a great king or a great sage. On the seventh day his mother died, and his father married his mother’s sister, named Mahaprajapati Gautami. She brought up Siddhartha with love and affection. Gradually, he was called after his step-mother, ‘Gautamiputra’ (son of Gautami) or ‘Gautama’ (go-cow/bull, tema-the best; the best cow or bull). The child was delicately nurtured and brought up in palatial luxury. At the age of sixteen, Siddhartha married his cousin, Yasodhara.
  • At the age of twenty nine, while he was travelling out of the palace, he had four encounters which left a lasting impact on him. He saw an old decrepit man, a sick man, a corpse in a funeral procession, and a peaceful and serene ascetic wandering alone.
  • The first three sights disturbed him, whereas the fourth one gave him hope and peace. After a son, named Rahula (meaning rope or fetter) was born to him, one night he left home and wandered around for many years.
  • He studied yoga and meditation from two hermits - Udraka Ramaputhra and Alara Kalama. For some time he practised severe asceticism, but soon realized that it did not help him. Finally, he sat down at the bottom of the Bodhi tree.
  • At the age of 35, during meditation under the Bodhi tree (the tree of wisdom), on the bank of the river Neranjara at Bodh-Gaya (near Gaya in modern Bihar), Gotama (Gautama) attained Enlightenment. In the beginning, he was reluctant to share his experiences with any one for fear of being misunderstood. Gradually, he changed his mind and delivered his first sermon to a group of five ascetics (who were old colleagues) in the Deer Park at Lsipatana, near Varanasi. After this, he taught all kinds of people till the end of his life, irrespective of their caste, religion, or status in society. After preaching and teaching for many years, Buddha attained Nirvana at the age of eighty at Kushinagara in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
  • Buddha was the only religious founder who did not make any super natural claim. He was simple and humane.
  • Whatever he achieved could be attained by any human person. Every person has the inner potency to become an enlightened one, through constant meditation and a disciplined life. He founded the religion of Buddhism after he attained true wisdom under the Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya.
  • In his first public address at the Sarnath Deer Park in Benares, Buddha spoke of the four noble truths, which are,
    • the world is full of suffering
    • suffering is caused by desire
    • suffering can be removed
    • in order to remove suffering one has to overcome desire.

    FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

    The Buddha was least interested in metaphysical discourses or dogmas. He was concerned about ethical living, applicable to all sections of people - kings, princes, Brahmans, people of low caste, masters, servants, monks, ordinary people, etc. He taught about the nobility of a religion. The four Noble Truths are the essence of the Buddha’s teachings, which he explained in his first sermon to his old colleagues at Isipattana. These noble truths are explained in detail later, in other early Buddhist scriptures.

    1. Dukkha: there is ‘Suffering’ in the world.
    2. Samudaya: the arising or origin of ‘Suffering’.
    3. Nirodha: the cessation of ‘Suffering’.
    4. Magga: there is a path leading to the end of ‘Suffering’.

    THE DOCTRINE OF NO SOUL (ANATTA)

    • Most of the religions pre-suppose the existence of a soul. Buddhism is unique in denying the existence of a soul or atman.
    • The ideal of ego or self is with the aim of self protection and self preservation. These are basically selfish desires.
    • The concept of anatta is closely connected with the doctrine of the five aggregates and dependent origination.
    • The concept of self can be analyzed as a combination of the five aggregates. There is nothing permanent; everything is conditioned, dependant, and relative. Buddhism originated at a time when there were two predominant trends in the intellectual milieu of India, i.e., the powerful and popular spiritualistic thinking, and materialistic thinking. The former accepted the authority of the Vedas while the latter rejected it.
    • Almost all religious accepted the existence of a soul, whereas materialism strongly rejected the existence of a soul. Buddhism did not follow any of the prevalent trends but followed the middle path. Buddhism was an exception, in denying the existence of a soul, but at the same time it rejected the materialistic philosophy. The idea of an ego or a self in any religion is with the aim of self-protection and self-preservation. Self protection necessitates the existence of God, and self preservation necessitates the existence of self. These two are basically selfish desires.
    • The concept of Anatta is closely connected with the doctrine of the five aggregates and dependent origination. The concept of self can be analyzed as a combination of the five aggregates. There is nothing permanent; everything is conditioned in dependence and relativity.

    THE CONCEPT OF GOD

    • The concept of Buddhism refutes the idea of a God who throws the sinners into everlasting torments. In fact, the Buddhists believe in the existence of an enlightened being, who vows to save all sentient beings from their sufferings.
    • The concept of enlightenment is principally concerned with developing a method to escape from the illusions of the materialistic world.
    • Generally, we use the term 'God' to designate a supreme power, who is the creator of the entire universe and the chief law-giver for humans.
    • The God or Almighty is considered to be concerned with the welfare of His creations and the 'moksha' or salvation for those who follow His dictates.
    • Different religions and sects follow this God differently by different names, but as far as Buddhism is concerned, it has a different perception for Him.
    • Almost all the sects of Buddhism do not believe in the myth of God. Indeed some of the early Indian Mahayana philosophers denounced God-worship in terms which are even stronger than those expressed in the Theravada literature.
    • Some later Mahayana schools, which flourished outside India, ascribed some degree of divinity to a transcendent Buddha, considering living Buddhas to be a manifestation of the Adi Buddha.
    • But even then it cannot be said that the Buddha was converted into a Divinity comparable to the God of the monotheistic religions.
    • In the Brahmajala Sutta and the Aggaa Sutta texts, the Buddha refutes the claims of Maha Brahma (the main God) and shows Him to be subject to karmic law (i.e. cosmic law). Even long-lived Maha Brahma will be eliminated in each cycle of inevitable world dissolution and re-evolution.
    • In the Khevadda Sutta, Maha Brahma is forced to admit to an inquiring monk that he is unable to answer a question that is posed to him, and advises the monk to consult the Buddha. This clearly shows that Brahma acknowledges the superiority of the Buddha. The Buddha is viewed as some kind of a god figure.
    • In the Theravada tradition, the Buddha is regarded as a supremely enlightened human teacher who has come to his last birth in the samsara (the Buddhist cycle of existence).
    • But, Mahayana traditions, which tend to think in terms of a transcendental Buddha, do not directly make a claim for Buddha as God. Thus the Buddha cannot be considered as playing a God-like role in Buddhism. Rather, Buddha is concerned as an enlightened father of humanity.

    SECTS OF BUDDHISM

    Mahayana:

    • Mahayana Buddhism developed its own canon of scripture, using much that was included in the Theravada canon, but adding other Mahayana Sutras which contain the bases of their peculiar beliefs.
    • Among these the best known and most widely used are the famous Lotus Gospel and the Sukhavati-Vyu-ha which are the scriptures especially of the pure land sects. The path followed by the Gautama is thus the Mahayana - ‘the great vehicle’ or vehicle of the Bodhisttva (bodhisattva-yana).
    • The Mahayana movement claims to have been founded by the Buddha himself, though at first confined to a select group of hearers.
    • Many of the leading teachers of the new doctrines were born in south India, studied there, and afterwards went to the North; one of the earliest and most important being Nagarjuna and other major sutras circumstantially connected with the south.
    • During the life-time of the Blessed One (Buddha), he was already highly venerated and his aid was invoked by his disciples in their spiritual struggles. A simple cult developed about the relics of the Blessed One very early.
    • His body was burned, and the ashes and bones distributed among the disciples. Shrines were built to house those relics, some of them very elaborate and expensive; for example, the very impressive one that has his head. Images of the Buddha representing him in mediation under the Bodhi tree became common.
    • At first they were conceived of simply, as subjectively helpful. Veneration of the relic had the effect of calming the heart. Later arose the belief that such a reverential act was good in itself and would result in securing merit. Pilgrimages made to sacred spots associated with him would likewise benefit one and would result in karma.
    • Given the characteristic Hindu background, it was natural that for all practical purposes Gautama should soon become a god, though not theoretically called so.
    • Given likewise the characteristic Hindu speculative philosophical interest, attempts to explain the relation of the Buddha to the ultimate realty of the universe naturally began to be made, almost from the start.
    • According to the Mahayana, reality is beyond the rational intellect or beyond the four categories of understanding. And they say that the world is real and relative, and the absolute reality only appears as the manifold universe. Plural is not real.
    • The Mahayana concept of liberation is not merely for one, but is meant for all. The ideal Bodhisattva defers his own salvation in order to work for the salvation of others. And they also hold that nirvana is not a negative state of cessation of misery, but is positive bliss.

    Hinayana:

    • The Hinayana or lesser vehicle has been more moderate in its doctrine of the person of the Buddha. He is theoretically neither a god nor a supernatural being.
    • His worship or veneration is helpful, but not essential, to the achievement of the salvation goal.
    • This is to be reached by something like the process Gautama taught, namely, meditation on the four noble truths and the keeping of the Dharma; in short, becoming a monk, for one could not carry out all the requirements and live an active life in the day-to-day world.
    • Thus the number to whom salvation lay open was comparatively small. It was this fact which caused the followers of the Mahayana school to call the older school the ‘little vehicle’. Not many could ride at a time.
    • Mahayana, on the other hand, made salvation universally possible for achievement. The goal of the Hinayana was to become an Arhat, that is, to arrive at Nirvana in the present life; an ideal of salvation of the self, with no reference to the welfare of others, and thus an egoistic ideal.
    • That of Mahayana was of a more altruistic sort. It was to become a Buddha; and theoretically, at least, anyone might aspire to reach Buddha-hood. To be sure, he would not reach it in one single lifetime, but there was elaborated a definite series of steps, ten in all, through which one must pass before arriving at the goal.
    • One who had taken the vow of future Buddha – hood was called a Bodhisattva, and he need not be a monk. Here was a clear-cut difference from the Hinayana School - a layman might aspire for the highest goal.
    • But the most notable difference was the fact that in becoming a Bodhisttva , one became ( after passing a certain stage) a great ‘cosmic helper’ or saviour, dedicated to the saving of mankind. Men came to rely on the help of such ‘great beings’ in their search for freedom.

    How Swami Vivekananda became the ‘messenger of Indian wisdom’ to West

    Context

    January 12 is the birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda, the famous Hindu spiritual leader and intellectual from the late 19th century.

    About

    • An important religious reformer in India, Swami Vivekananda is known to have introduced the Hindu philosophies of Yoga and Vedanta to the West.
    • Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose had called Vivekananda the “maker of modern India.”
    • In his honour, the government of India in 1984 declared his birthday as National Youth Day.
    • The aim of the celebrations is to spread the message of strength, fearlessness, sacrifice, character-building and excellence among youth.
    • Swami Vivekananda propounded the importance of Education in building a nation. He believed that education was the primary means to empowering people. He specially emphasized on education being relevant to the common masses.
    • Ramakrishna Mission is an organization established by Swami Vivekananda which works in the area of value based education, culture, health, women's empowerment, youth and tribal welfare and relief and rehabilitation.

    Swami Vivekananda early life

    • Vivekananda was born in Kolkata on January 12, 1863, as Narendra Nath Datta.
    • From an early age, he nurtured an interest in Western philosophy, history, and theology, and went on to meet the religious leader Ramakrishna Paramhansa, who later became his Guru. He remained devoted to Ramakrishna until the latter’s death in 1886.
    • In 1893, he took the name ‘Vivekananda’ after Maharaja Ajit Singh of the Khetri State requested him to do so, changing from ‘Sachidananda’ that he used before.
    • After Ramakrishna’s death, Vivekananda toured across India, and set after educating the masses about ways to improve their economic condition as well as imparting spiritual knowledge.

    The Chicago address

    • Vivekananda is especially remembered around the world for his speech at the Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago in 1893.
    • The speech covered topics including universal acceptance, tolerance and religion.
    • He began delivering lectures at various places in the US and UK, and became popular as the ‘messenger of Indian wisdom to the Western world’.

    Vivekananda’s legacy

    • Through his speeches and lectures, Vivekananda worked to disseminate his religious thought. He preached ‘neo-Vedanta’, an interpretation of Hinduism through a Western lens, and believed in combining spirituality with material progress.
    • ‘Raja Yoga’, ‘Jnana Yoga’, ‘Karma Yoga’ are some of the books he wrote.
    • Before his death in 1902, Vivekananda wrote to a Western follower: “It may be that I shall find it good to get outside my body, to cast it off like a worn out garment. But I shall not cease to work. I shall inspire men everywhere until the whole world shall know that it is one with God.”

    10 Inspirational Quotes by the Legendary and World Renowned Monk Swami Vivekananda

    • All the powers in the universe are already ours. It is we who have put our hands before our eyes and cry that it is dark.
    • We are what our thoughts have made us; so take care about what you think. Words are secondary. Thoughts live; they travel far.
    • Take up one idea. Make that one idea your life -think of it, dream of it, live on that idea. Let the brain, muscles, nerves, every part of your body, be full of that idea and just leave every other idea alone. This is the way to success.
    • All differences in this world are of degree, and not of kind, because oneness is the secret of everything.
    • If money help a man to do good to others, it is of some value; but if not, it is simply a mass of evil, and the sooner it is got rid of, the better.
    • You have to grow from the inside out. None can teach you, none can make you spiritual. There is no other teacher but your own soul.
    • The moment I have realized God sitting in the temple of every human body, the moment I stand in reverence before every human being and see God in him - that moment I am free from bondage, everything that binds vanishes, and I am free.
    • Truth can be stated in a thousand different ways, yet each one can be true.
    • As different streams having different sources all mingle their waters in the sea, so different tendencies, various though they appear, crooked or straight, all lead to God.
    • When an idea exclusively occupies the mind, it is transformed into an actual physical or mental state.

    Battle of Koregaon

    Context

    202nd Anniversary of Battle of Koregaon Bhima

    About

    • Bhima-Koregaon, a small village in Pune district of Maharashtra, has a rich Maratha history. Two hundred years ago, on January 1, 1818, a few hundred Mahar soldiers of the East India Company, led by the British, defeated the massive Peshwa army, led by Peshwa Bajirao II, in Koregaon.
    • Legend has it that about 500 Mahar soldiers under the East India Company clashed with a 25,000-strong army of Peshwa Bajirao II.
    • Mahars, at this point, were considered an untouchable community, and were not recruited in the army by the peshwas.
    • This battle has, since, attained legendary stature in Dalit history.
    • The Dalits who follow BR Ambedkar view this battle as a victory of Mahars over the injustice and torture meted out to them by the Brahminical Peshwas.

    So What Happens There Every January?

    • On January 1, 1927, Bhimrao Ambedkar started the ritual of holding a commemoration at the site of this pillar, one that is repeated every year.
    • It’s the Ambedkarite Dalits who gather at Bhima Koregaon to pay their respect at the Vijay Sthamb (victory pillar).
    • The pillar was erected by the East India Company in memory of those who fought the battle. The names of the Mahar soldiers who unknowingly brought an end to the Peshwa rule in 1818 are inscribed on the pillar.
    • Dalit Ambedkarites draw inspiration from this victory at Bhima Koregaon. Ever since Bhima-Koregaon Ranstambh Seva Sangh (BKRSS) was formed, they regard the stambh or pillar as a site of their valour and a symbol of their place in the political diaspora.
    • Those protesting the commemoration of the Koregaon Bhima battle victory are miffed because it basically celebrates the "British victory" against the Marathas.

    Why Bhima Koregaon is seen as a Dalit symbol?

    • The battle has come to be seen as a symbol of Dalit pride because a large number of soldiers in the Company force were the Mahar Dalits.
    • Since the Peshwas, who were Brahmins, were seen as oppressors of Dalits, the victory of the Mahar soldiers over the the Peshwa force is seen as Dalit assertion.
    • Thus, in the first battle and the last battle (1757-1818) it was the Untouchables who fought on the side of the British and helped them to conquer India.

    Arguments against it

    • Ambedkar's pride in Bhima Koregaon belonged very much to that age. Ambedkar was a very original and provocative thinker. Some of his views were quite cogent but belonged to those very times.
    • Many of his views on Muslims and Christians would be totally unacceptable in today's India.
    • It was not as if the British were kind to the Mahars.
    • The British had abolished the Mahar regiment after 1857 uprising. They started preferring upper castes that they called 'martial races'.
    • The Mahar regiment was restarted only during the Second World War.

    Jallianwala Bagh National Memorial (Amendment) Bill, 2019

    Context

    • The Lok Sabha recently passed Jallianwala Bagh National Memorial (Amendment) Bill, 2019 by a voice vote.
    • A high-pitched verbal duel over the bill saw ruling National Democratic Alliance members accuse the Congress of holding on to the post despite it being the centenary year of the memorial.

    Amendments included in the bill:

    • The Bill amends the Jallianwala Bagh National Memorial Act, 1951 which was passed to erect a National Memorial in memory of those killed and wounded in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of over 1,000 people on April 12, 1919.
    • Under the provisions of the Act, the trustees of the Memorial include the Prime Minister as Chairperson, the Congress president, the Minister-in-charge of Culture, the Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha, the Governor and Chief Minister of Punjab, and three eminent persons nominated by the Centre as its members. The bill seeks to remove the Congress president as a permanent member of this trust.
    • The bill says that “the Leader of Opposition recognised as such in the House of the People, or where there is no such Leader of Opposition, then the Leader of the single largest Opposition Party in that House" will be on the trust.
    • The bill allows the central government to terminate the term of a nominated trustee before the expiry of the period of his term.
    • The bill is introduced so that such organizations or trusts could not be politicized and should instead be nationalized.

    Opposition to the bill:

    • Some members of the Parliament believe that the only intention of the government is to wipe out history. They say that the stalwarts of the Congress remained in the party, they went to jail, fought for the Independence movement. The museum was built by them; the money was donated by them. Hence Congress president should continue as a permanent member of the trust.
    • Some members of the Parliament consider such bills as a waste of Parliament’s precious time. They are not of any use for solving the grievances of the common public. It is a trivial issue.

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