Modern History (Revolt of 1857) by Shivlal Gupta

Model Answer

Question #1. What were the multiple factors that caused the failure of the revolt of 1857? Briefly discuss the impact of the revolt on the British rule in India.

Approach:

• Briefly explain the nature of Revolt of 1857.
• Discuss the multiple factors such as lack of a Unified Programme and Ideology , Lack of Unity Among Indians ,etc. that caused the failure of the revolt of 1857.
• Analyse the impact of the revolt on the British rule and its policies in India like transfer of Power, divide and rule, military policy, etc.
• Conclude with the gist of your answer                            

Hints:

The revolt of 1857 represented the crystallization of popular feelings against the alien rule. It was one of the most important events in the history of the struggle of the Indian people for emancipation from the British rule. It questioned and threatened the foundations of the British Empire in India. What started merely as a sepoy mutiny soon transmogrified to include the peasantry and other civilian populations over wide areas in northern India which logically gave it a character of a revolution.

The multiple factors that caused the failure of the revolt of 1857 were:

• Lack of a Unified Programme and Ideology- The rebellion swept off the British system of government and administration in India. But the rebels did not have forward-looking plan in mind. This made them rely on the feudal lords who had lost their vitality and were incapable to face the machinery of the British. Reliance on these elements made it difficult for the rebels to create a new sense of unity among the Indian people which failed to provide a viable alternative to British rule.
• Lack of Unity Among Indians- The revolt of 1857 was localized, restricted and poorly organised. The Bombay and Madras armies remained loyal. India beyond south of Narmada was very little disturbed. Sikhs did not want the revival of Mughal authority so they supported Britishers. Also, Zamindar did not support the revolt as they were the creation of the British and had all the reasons to support them. The same applied to the big merchants of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras who did not go over to the rebels but supported the British.
• Lack of Support from the Educated Indians- The modern educated Indians also did not support the revolt because, in their view, the revolt was backward-looking. This educated middle class was the product of the British system of education and they believed mistakenly in the providential nature of the British role and hoped that it would lead the country towards modernization.
• Disunity Among the Leaders- The main problem, however, was lack of unity in the ranks of rebels themselves. Their leaders were suspicious and jealous of each other and often indulged in petty quarrels. The Begum of Awadh, for example, quarrelled with Maulavi Ahmadullah. Thus, selfishness and narrow perspective of the leaders sapped the strength of the revolt and prevented its consolidation.
• Military Superiority of the British- Another major factor for the defeat of the rebels was the British superiority in arms. The British imperialism, at the height of its power the world over and supported by most of the Indian princes and chiefs, proved militarily too strong for the rebels. While the rebels were lacking in discipline and central command, the British continued to have a constant supply of disciplined soldiers, war materials and money from Britain. Sheer courage could not win against a powerful and determined enemy who planned its strategy skillfully. Because of ill-discipline, the rebels lost more men and material than the British in every encounter. So, the rebels were deficient in experience, organizing ability, and concerted operations.

The impact of the revolt on the British rule

The revolt completely shocked and surprised the British rule in India. The structure and policies of the re-established British rule were, in much respect, drastically changed after the rebellion was suppressed.

• Transfer of Power- The first major change was that the power to govern India passed from East India Company to the British Crown through an Act of 1858. Now, a Secretary of State for India aided by a Council was to be responsible for the governance of India.
• Changes in Military Organisation- The second drastic change was effected in the army. Steps were taken to prevent any further revolt by the Indian soldiers:
  • The number of European soldiers was increased and fixed at one European to two Indian soldiers in the Bengal Army and two to five in Bombay and Madras armies. Moreover, the European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions.
  • The crucial branches of the army like artillery were put exclusively in European hands.
  • The organization of the Indian section of the army was now based on the policy of "divide and rule". Regiments were created on the basis of caste, community, and region to prevent the development of any nationalistic feeling among the soldiers.
• Divide and Rule- This policy of "divide and rule" was also introduced in the civilian population. Since the British thought that the revolt was a conspiracy hatched by the Muslims, they were severely punished and discriminated in public appointments and in other areas. This policy was later reversed and belated appeasement of Muslims began. A policy of preferential treatment of the Muslims was adopted towards the end of the 19th century. These policies created problems for the Indian freedom struggle and contributed to the growth of communalism.
• New Policy towards the Princes- Another important change was in the British policies towards the Princely states. The earlier policy of annexation was now abandoned and the rulers of these states were now authorized to adopt heirs. This was done as a reward to those native rulers who had remained loyal to the British during the revolt. However, this authority of the Indian rulers over particular territories was completely subordinated to the authority of the British and they were converted into a Board of privileged dependents.
• Search for New Friends- Besides these changes, the British now turned to the most reactionary groups among the Indians, like the zamindars, princes, and landlords, for strengthening their fortune in the country.

Conclusion:

The revolt of 1857 brought to the surface the real reactionary nature of British rule in India. It made most of the Indians realize that the British rule in India was essentially anti-people and it was bound to be oppressive and hostile to their national interest.

The mutiny was inevitable as the accumulated grievance of all Indians were increasing since the inception of the British rule in India. The revolt helped in shattering the invincibility of the British rule once for all and the stage was set for an organized and long drawn out struggle against the alien rule. The rebellion remained a source of inspiration for the national liberation movement which later achieved what the Revolt could not.

Question #2. The revolt of 1857 and the colonial state’s success in creating differences between religious groups allowed the British to institutionalize these policies in the years to come. Discuss.

Approach

• The question focuses on the colonial state’s success in creating differences between religious groups allowed the British to institutionalise these policies in the following years to come.
• Introduction (Summary of key demand of the question, along with necessary facts).
• Conclusion by summing up the gist of the answer.

Hints:

After the Revolt of 1857, the British had patronaged and applied the most unscrupulous policy to divide the Indians in different castes and classes. The British used one class or caste against the other. The Muslims were made to fight with the Hindus and the high caste Hindus were excited against the low caste Hindus. Thus, there was deterioration in the whole country.

The collapse of the Mutiny created a misunderstanding between the Hindus and the Muslims. The Muslims had shown a keener and more widespread sympathy for the rebels. Even in South India where their number was small many conspiracies were formed among them against the British between 1857 and 1859.Muslim property was widely confiscated. This created ill feelings and misunderstanding amongst the Muslims against the Hindus.

The colonial state’s success in creating differences between religious groups allowed the British to institutionalise these policies in the following years to come:

• The British thought that Muslims were the main reason behind the Revolt of 1857. From 1860s to 1870s, the British followed a series of repressive policies mainly targeting the Muslims while promoting Hindus (amongst Hindus, mostly upper caste Hindus).
• This discrimination through policies led to increased gap between the social, economic status of Hindusand Muslims, like lack of education, outdated traditions, lower incomes. This increased social, economic gap emerged in the form of communal politics later on.
• In the policy of divide and rule, the British started dividing Indian History on communal grounds. Ancient India was identified with Hindu and Medieval India was identified with Muslims.
• Hindu Leaders in Indian renaissance banked heavily on the content from Ancient India and Medieval India was ignored. This led to Muslims believing that movements were mainly revivalistic and not reformistic.
• British encouraged Muslims like Sir Syed Ahmad Khan against Hindus by granting communal electorates and other Muslim specific concessions in partitioned Bengal. This happened because British started sensing threat from educated middle class Hindus in 1880s.
• The British played crucial role in formation of Muslim League in 1907.They introduced separate electorate for Muslims through Act of 1909.

Conclusion:

The British government used communalism to counter and weaken the growing national movement and the welding of the Indian people into a nation. It was presented by the colonial rulers as the problem of the defence of the minorities. Hindu-Muslim disunity was sighted as the reason for the continuation of the British rule.

They favoured one community against the other in services and promotions. The British policy of acting late to crush the communal violence also contributed to the growth of this phenomenon. The British policy of separate electorate was another factor.