Anthropology Optional (Paper 1 Section B) Economic Organization by Sourabh Mishra Sir

Model Answer

Question #1. Describe the formalists and substantivists approach to the study of primitive and peasant society.

Approach:

• Introduce by briefly explaining both the schools of thought and what they seek to analyze.
• Body should include explanations of both the schools with examples.
• Conclusion.

Hints:

Economic anthropology deals with the economic aspect of societies in socio-cultural context. There are two views in the school of economic anthropology such as formalism and substantivism. Also, new school Neo-Marxism came into being which considers earlier two schools to be inappropriate and they explained the economic behavior of tribal societies through the prism of Marxism.

The opposition which exists between formalist and substantivist school was 1st proposed by Karl Polanyi in his book-“the Great transformation” (1944) in which he argued that ‘Economics’ has two meanings formalism and subtantivism

Formalist approach

This school was advocate by Raymond firth, Salisbury, Schneider, Herskovits and et al. they advocated that economic structure of simple societies can be studied through the principles of modern economics like

1.  Money- as a standardized system of exchange by which every economic activity can be reduced to exchange of money.
2. Market- all the exchanges take place through market principle and every individual enters the market with principle and economic rationality.
3. Profit maximization- all individuals are buyers and sellers thus they all are full time specialists.
4. Market rationality- economic relations are based on market rationality. It means decision making based on cost benefit relationships.
5. Division of labor is clear.
6. Follows principle of demand and supply and product maximization.
7. Structure of society is stratified.
8. Unit of production: - individual.
9. Type of economy: Actor oriented economy

Criticism:

•       Its central assumptions about human behavior have been questioned. In particular, it has been argued that the universality of rational choice and utility maximization cannot be assumed across all cultures.
•       Narrow focus i.e. atomized individual behavior to exclusion of socio-cultural context.

Substantivist approach:

This approach was advocated by Dalton, Polanyi, and sahine. They argued that the economy of simple society is not pure economy but social economy i.e. underlying principles of economy are social. They have observed that economic activity in simple society is integrated with other socio-cultural life. It is basically a close relation between economy and culture.

Characteristics:

• Type of economy- system oriented economy.
• Principle of maximization- production optimizers.
• Unit of production- Group.
• Target of production is to not gain surplus but to fulfill the needs of the community at optimum level.
• Principle of rationalization- economic decision making based on social relationships and cultural values.
• Exchange- reciprocity is there.
• Division of labor- minimal.
• Fulfilling the needs of society is more important than demand and supply.
• Structure of society- egalitarian.
• Kinship based economy.

Example:

Kula: - it is a typical feature of many island people of western pacific, can be defined as a system of exchange supported by a complete set of rituals and dominated by values and ideologues.

All steps in the Kula, explained by Malinowski, social roles score over economic roles. As the meagre quantitative aspect of economic exchanges through hazardous, modern economist tends to see as an uneconomic activity but it has deep social value as voyages for Kula and subsequent meetings strengthened the social bonding between the islanders generating the social current that increases their survival.

Criticism:

• Prattis (1982) argues that strict distinction between primitive and modern economies in substantivism is problematic.
• Plattner (1989) argues that some generalization between western and non-western economies are still possible as there are hardly any pure pre-industrialized societies left.

Conclusion:

Thus in today’s modern capitalist economies substantivism and formalism coincide. Market exchange is seen as the dominant mode of integration while reciprocity may continue inside the family and some redistribution may be undertaken by state/charitable institutions.

However, debate is outdated in the sense today we do not compare different disciplines but follow interdisciplinary approaches and try to bring them for mutual benefit.

Question #2.What is globalization and discuss its impact on indigenous people.

APPROACH:

• The question focuses on the impact of globalization on indigenous people.
• Introduce the term globalization in an anthropological sense.
• Body must include the impacts of development on the society and culture of indigenous people.
• Conclusion with the gist of the answer.

Hints:

Tribals were globalised and exposed to the outside world through colonialism. It has brought about many positive and negative changes in their societies. However indigenous populations have been trying to adjust themselves to the changing economic scenario.

Globalization

In an anthropological sense, globalization is “…an intensification of global interconnectedness, suggesting a world full of movement and mixture, contact and linkages, and persistent cultural interaction and exchange”

In the name of Development, the life, livelihood, culture and habitat of indigenous people has been brought under the hot-iron of Globalization. The tribal way of life is dictated by the law of nature. The impact of Globalization on tribal communities is multifaceted as they are the ones that evidently negatively affected not only in India but all over the world.

Impact of globalization on indigenous people:-

• The direct effects of globalization on indigenous peoples. There are a wide range of impacts, ranging from land and resources issues, to issues of language and ownership of cultural property. Cultural property can include everything from specific strains of plants, traditional medicines, to music and culture.
• The following is a list of dangers faced by indigenous peoples:
• Many indigenous peoples live on the frontiers of civilization. These pristine wilderness areas contain many resources which are covered by trans-national corporations, governments, and other global interests. These resources include bio-diversity, minerals, natural gas, oil, and timber.
• Many countries have re-oriented to an export based economy. This can have dire consequences for indigenous cultures, as local governments are encouraged to ruthlessly extract resources from these cultures.
• Traditional sovereignty of tribals over hunting and gathering rights is thrown in question as national governments bind themselves to new global treaties.
• Land ownership in tribal people was collective ownership but due to globalisation and individualism, private property is entering tribal culture.
• Distribution: earlier equal distribution but now due to individualism, uneven distribution and hierarchy is found.
• Consumption: earlier no food storage and food consumed immediately but now storage of food resulting in inequality.
• Sale of factors of production such as land, labour, due to indebtedness.
• Land treaties and hunting and fishing rights are often thrown into doubt due to the signing of international treaties. These international treaties are in murky legal ground. However, because of their lack of resources, indigenous peoples are often at the losing end of these agreements.
• Rules have changed regarding the ownership of biodiversity. This has resulted in many companies copyrighting plants which have been used for centuries. An example of this is turmeric, which was the subject of an attempt to claim ownership by transnational corporations.
• In many cases, indigenous communities are not consulted when international agreements are entered into. These treaties concern import/export rights as well as resource management.
• Positive effects:
• Popularization of indigenous art and monetary benefits to tribals. Example: bastar art got world recognition, warli painting of Maharashtra tribes.
• Traditional knowledge digital library project of government of India.
• Globalisation has helped in popularization of tribal dances and earned them international recognition. Example: kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthani tribe named kalbelia have been inscribed by UNESCO in the representative list of the intangible cultural heritage of humanity.
• Eradication of superstition

The contact with outsiders helped in eradication of superstitious practices among tribals. Hindu and Christian missionaries were responsible for bringing some reforms in such practices. The use of magic for disease curing was stopped and modern education practices were adopted.

Ex: Burial of new born along with dead mother in Khasi tribes has been stopped.

• National integration

Globalisation has helped to remove isolation of tribals from the rest of the country. They have been introduced to outside practices that have brought some sort of behavioural changes. This has helped in national integration and unity.

• Legal and constitutional protection

the degrading life of tribals has captured the attention of authorities due to better communication. This has translated into protection for tribals, their language, and culture. Constitutional protection such as 5th schedule and 6th schedule have given more authority and autonomy to tribals.

• Educational opportunities

Tribals were one of the least educated groups. The entry of missionaries brought education standards to improve their lives. Schools and colleges were established for the education of tribals. This has helped tribals in north east India to attain a high level of educational standards.

Ex: VanavasiKalyan schools, Eklavya Residential schools.

Case Study of Odisha and the Impact of Globalisation on Tribals:

• Odisha is a state in eastern India that has always been in the spotlight when it comes to its tribal population. The influence of globalisation on tribals in the Koraput-Bolangir-Kalahandi (KBK) districts is examined.
• The interference of multinational businesses in the tribal lands of Koraput, Bolangir, and Kalahandi has long been a cause of controversy. 
• Tribals of Odisha have a wide spectrum of cultural and ethnic diversity. Previously confined to hills and forests, the tribes are now seeking to integrate into regional and national society.
• Globalisation obliterates identities in a variety of ways. Indigenous peoples are facing a dilemma in terms of long-term development. Their communities are living examples of long term sustainability in a range of habitats.
• There are certain positive aspects of globalisation that should not be overlooked, such as the fact that certain dance forms and handicrafts such as timber products, stone products, and other handmaid products have become quite popular in the worldwide market.
• Tribals who were previously marginalized in society, are now gaining popularity.  Knowledge and literacy have assisted tribes in improving their living conditions and livelihood, preventing them from being exploited by these non-tribal groups as a result of globalisation. 

Conclusion:

Globalization is posing hurdles for the tribal and they need to come together to identify and recognise commonalities. It is universally recognised that the markets are antagonistic to the poor, weak, and vulnerable. Social development is no longer just the responsibility of the government; it is also the time for corporate behemoths to assist the government in implementing various development plans for India’s weaker sections, especially tribals.

A new development model must be developed in which both the government and private players, individually and together, share equal responsibilities for social development. As a result, the government should develop unique policies and programmes to alleviate these disparities, particularly in the context of globalisation.

The Museum of Tribal Arts and Artefacts is intended to make a beneficial and helpful contribution to this purpose. Outsiders cannot establish tribals; if they wish to do so, they can only act as facilitators. Thus tribals must be included in any growth decisions if they are to blossom from within.