GS Analyst: Daily Current Affairs

The Himachal Pradesh Chief Minister highlighted the role of the Anti-Defection Law in safeguarding democracy following the 2024 Rajya Sabha elections, where six Congress MLAs cross-voted for a BJP candidate, leading to their disqualification and the prevention of a potential no-confidence motion against the elected government.

Anti-Defection Law – Overview

• Introduced via 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985.
• Incorporated as the Tenth Schedule of the Constitution.
• Objective: Prevent political defections to ensure stability of elected governments.
• Applies to both Parliament and State Legislatures.

Key Provisions

• Aimed to disqualify legislators for:
  • Defecting to another political party.
  • Voting/abstaining against party direction (whip).
• Speaker/Chairman decides on disqualification.
• Subject to Judicial Review (Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu, 1992).

Grounds for Disqualification

• Voluntarily giving up party membership.
• Voting or abstaining against party whip without prior permission.
  • Disqualification not applicable if party condones within 15 days.
• Independent member joins a political party post-election.
• Nominated member joins any political party after 6 months.

Exceptions to Disqualification

• Merger Exception:
  • If 2/3rd members of a party agree to merge with another party.
  • No disqualification for such members.
• Split provision (1/3rd rule) removed via 91st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003.

Major Issues

• Undermines legislative autonomy; MPs/MLAs must obey party line.
• No time limit for Speaker to decide on defection cases.
• Speaker's role may be politically biased.
• No recognition for ‘split’, only merger is valid.
• Promotes horse-trading, weakening democratic ethics.
• Breaks accountability chain: legislators accountable to party, not public.
• Encourages wholesale defection, penalizes retail defection.

Suggestions for Reform

• Time-bound adjudication of disqualification by an independent tribunal (SC recommendation).
• Election Commission to decide defection cases (EC recommendation).
• Restrict law to confidence/money bills only (Hamid Ansari).
• Enact law to promote intra-party democracy, bring parties under RTI.

Important Case Law

• Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992):
  • Validated Anti-Defection Law.
  • Allowed judicial review after Speaker’s decision.

Recent Example (2024 – Himachal Pradesh)

• 6 Congress MLAs cross-voted in Rajya Sabha election.
• Disqualified under Tenth Schedule.
• State Assembly passed Bill to stop pension of disqualified MLAs.

Despite Tamil Nadu’s well-established healthcare infrastructure and successful public health indicators, the State is now grappling with a serious healthcare workforce crisis—marked by staff shortages, unfilled vacancies, and discontent among healthcare workers, which threatens to undermine years of public health progress.

From Health Leadership to Workforce Stagnation: Tamil Nadu’s Looming Health Crisis

1. Achievements and Institutional Framework

• Robust Infrastructure:
  • Over 11,000 government healthcare institutions span primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Tamil Nadu’s institutions like the Tamil Nadu Medical Services Corporation (TNMSC) and Transplant Authority are recognized for transparency and efficiency.
• Flagship Programmes:
  • Makkalai Thedi Maruthuvam (MTM) delivers screening and drugs for NCDs at doorsteps.
  • Muthulakshmi Reddy Maternity Benefit Scheme offers nutritional and financial aid.
  • CM’s Comprehensive Health Insurance Scheme ensures access to expensive procedures.
• Key Health Gains:
  • Maternal Mortality Ratio: Reduced from 45.5 (2023–24) to 39.4 (2024–25)
  • Infant Mortality Rate: Reduced from 8.2 to 7.7
  • Under-5 Mortality: Reduced to 8.2
  • Hypertension and Diabetes control indicators have improved notably under MTM.

2. Workforce Deficiencies and Administrative Gaps

• Vacant Posts Across Cadres:
  • 2,013 Village Health Nurse (VHN) posts and 1,251 Auxiliary Nurse Midwife (ANM) posts are unfilled due to legal and procedural delays.
  • VHNs cover 2–3 villages each, leading to overburden and reduced service quality.
• Specialist Shortages:
  • Skewed distribution and absence of super-specialty cadre (e.g., cardiothoracic surgery, vascular surgery) at secondary/tertiary levels.
  • Despite recruiting ~3,500 Medical Officers, specialist gaps persist.
• Contractualisation and PPP Concerns:
  • The proposed PPP models in services like haemodialysis have triggered opposition from permanent staff over fears of job dilution and corporatization.

3. Impact, Concerns and the Road Ahead

• Impact on Service Delivery:
  • An overstretched workforce negatively affects patient outcomes, public trust, and morale of frontline health workers.
• Failure to Match Infrastructure with Human Resources:
• The growth in patient inflow and disease burden has not been matched with proportionate workforce expansion.
• Need for Structural Reform:
  • Tamil Nadu must adopt a comprehensive Human Resources for Health (HRH) policy, ensure faster recruitment cycles, and adopt Indian Public Health Standards (IPHS) benchmarks for staffing.

The Election Commission of India (ECI) has initiated the process of de-listing 345 Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPPs) that have not contested any election in the past six years and are found to be physically untraceable. This development revives debates on internal democracy, tax misuse, and long-pending electoral reforms.

Constitutional and Legal Basis for Political Party Registration

• Constitutional Provision:
  • Article 19(1)(c): Grants all citizens the right to form associations, including political parties.
• Legal Provision:
  • Section 29A, Representation of the People Act, 1951:
    • Requires political parties to register with the ECI within 30 days of formation.
    • Mandatory declaration to uphold sovereignty, socialism, secularism, democracy, and the Constitution.
    • Must include provisions for internal democracy, such as periodic elections of office bearers.

Privileges and Obligations of RUPPs

• Benefits:
  • Income Tax exemption under Section 13A of the IT Act, 1961.
  • Common symbol for elections.
  • Nomination of 20 star campaigners during election campaigns.
• Financial Accountability:
  • Must maintain donor details for contributions above ?20,000.
  • Donations above ?2,000 must be made through cheque or bank transfer.
• Annual Filing Requirements:
  • Submission of audited accounts and contribution reports to ECI.
  • Failure to comply leads to loss of tax exemption.

The Issue of 'Letter Pad Parties'

• Over 2,800 RUPPs exist as of May 2025, but only ~750 contested the 2024 general elections.
• Many parties do not update office bearer lists or conduct internal elections.
• The RP Act, 1951, does not empower the ECI to de-register parties except under exceptional cases:
  • Registration obtained via fraud.
  • Party declared unlawful by the Government.
  • Party ceases to abide by the Indian Constitution.

Judicial Precedent:

• Indian National Congress vs. Institute of Social Welfare (2002): Supreme Court ruled that ECI has no general power to de-register political parties.

ECI's De-Listing Drive and Current Developments

• March 2024 Notification (amended May 2025):
  • 281 RUPPs de-listed.
  • 217 declared inactive (no updated records since 2014).

Institutional & Policy Challenges

• Lack of De-registration Power: Absence of legislative backing to de-register inactive parties restricts ECI's capacity to act.
• Misuse of Financial Provisions: Many RUPPs exist merely to exploit tax exemptions or launder money through political donations.
• Poor Enforcement of Internal Democracy: Periodic elections and transparency in leadership selection largely absent.

Reform Recommendations and Way Forward

• Legal Reform:
  • Law Commission’s 255th Report (2015): Proposed that parties not contesting elections for 10 consecutive years be de-registered.
  • Law Commission’s 170th Report: Recommended provisions for inner-party democracy in RP Act.
  • ECI’s 2016 Electoral Reforms Memorandum: Called for amending RP Act to empower ECI to de-register parties.
  • Enhancing Oversight and Compliance:
  • Strict enforcement of Section 29C of RP Act on donor disclosure.
  • Annual third-party audit of party financials.
• Transparency Measures:
  • Publicly available compliance reports.
  • Digital tracking of party registration, office location, and updates.
• Inner-Party Democracy:
  • Mandate time-bound internal elections.
  • Penalties for non-compliance, including freezing of symbols or tax benefits

On July 1, 2024, a powerful explosion at Sigachi Industries Pvt. Ltd., a pharmaceutical unit in Pashamylaram industrial area of Telangana, claimed at least 17 lives and injured over 30 workers. The incident highlights glaring deficiencies in industrial safety, regulatory compliance, and emergency response mechanisms, despite the existence of an elaborate legal framework in India.

Industrial accidents in India:

Scale of the Problem

• 130 major chemical accidents reported in India in the past 10 years (NDMA data).
• Resulted in 259 deaths and 563 major injuries.
• Fatal accidents recurring: Major industrial accidents reported in 2016, 2018, 2020, and 2023.

Common Causes of Industrial Accidents

• Lack of Safety Measures
  • Inadequate safety training.
  • Poorly maintained or unregistered machinery (e.g., boiler not registered under Indian Boiler Regulations, 1950).
  • Non-compliance with hazard signage requirements.
• Human Error
  • Negligence, fatigue, or lack of awareness.
• Unsafe Work Environments
  • Congested layouts, inadequate ventilation.
  • Especially risky in chemical-intensive sectors (e.g., pharma, textiles).
• Machinery Malfunctions
  • Outdated equipment or maintenance lapses.
  • Workers at high risk of amputations and crush injuries (e.g., auto-sector).
• Electrical Hazards
  • Short circuits, overloaded wiring.
• Chemical Exposure
  • Leaks, spills, or inhalation causing acute or chronic health issues.

Inspection and Prosecution Gaps

• Low Inspection Rates for Hazardous Factories (2021):
  • Maharashtra: 89%
  • Tamil Nadu: 39%
  • Gujarat: 81%
  • National average: 02%
• Poor Prosecution Rates:
  • Gujarat: 95%
  • Maharashtra: 84%
  • Tamil Nadu: 45%

Impact on Workers

• Physical Injuries: Cuts, fractures, burns.
• Permanent Disabilities: Loss of limbs, especially in heavy machinery sectors.
• Fatalities: Recurring with poor emergency preparedness.
• Long-Term Illness: Respiratory issues, skin ailments, cancer due to chemical exposure.

Legal and Regulatory Framework

• Factories Act, 1948 (with 1987 Amendment): Core legal provision for factory safety.
• Indian Boiler Regulations, 1950: Mandatory registration for operational boilers.
• Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020:
  • Consolidates 13 labour laws.
  • Covers health and safety of workers in factories and hazardous units.
• Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: Governs industrial pollution and accident risk.
• Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991: Mandates compensation in hazardous industries

Government Initiatives

• National Policy on Safety, Health and Environment at Workplace (NPSHEW)
• Industrial Safety & Disaster Management Plans
• NDMA Guidelines on Chemical (Industrial) Disasters
• Labour Inspection and Enforcement System (Sharam Suvidha Portal)
• Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS): Sets norms for industrial equipment and safety practices.

Global Frameworks and Support

• ILO Global Strategy on Occupational Safety and Health (2024–2030): Promotes global workplace safety standards. and aligns with SDGs and decent work agenda.
• OECD Chemical Accidents Programme: Framework for prevention, preparedness, and response.
• EU Seveso Directive: Focused on Major Accident Hazard (MAH)
• UN Environment: National chemical safety and capacity-building programmes.
• WHO: Public health management during chemical incidents.
• UNDRR: Advocates for disaster resilience in industrial clusters.
• OPCW: Promotes chemical safety and secure handling practices.

Way Forward

• Mandatory Risk Assessment Audits for hazardous factories.
• Digital Factory Registries with real-time safety compliance tracking.
• Training & Capacity Building for factory workers and safety officers.
• Community Awareness Programs near chemical industrial zones.
• Stringent Penalties for violation of safety norms and regulatory negligence.
• Third-party inspections to reduce collusion and increase objectivity.

On June 30, observed as Hul Diwas, the Prime Minister of India paid a heartfelt tribute to the Santhal martyrs who launched one of the earliest and most organized tribal uprisings against British colonial rule in 1855.

Santhal Uprising (Santhal Hul) – 1855

Background & Context

• Date: Began on 30 June 1855 (commemorated as Hul Diwas).
• Location: Damin-i-Koh region, Rajmahal Hills (now in Jharkhand).
• Nature: India’s first organized tribal rebellion against British colonial rule, predating the 1857 Revolt.
• Reason:
  • Oppressive revenue system under the Permanent Settlement.
  • Exploitation by moneylenders, landlords (zamindars) and British agents.
  • Bonded labour systems like kamioti and harwahi.
  • Loss of land due to encroachments by non-tribals.

Key Leaders

• Sidhu Murmu & Kanhu Murmu – principal leaders.
• Chand & Bhairav, Phulo & Jhano – other notable revolutionary figures.
• Leadership marked by tribal unity of 32 different castes/communities.

Course of Revolt

• Santhals declared independence from British rule and set up a parallel administration.
• Armed with bows, arrows, axes, and local weapons.
• Brutally suppressed by British using military reinforcements and scorched-earth tactics.
• Thousands of Santhals were killed, including Sidhu and Kanhu.

Consequences

• Led to creation of a separate administrative district – Santhal Parganas.
• Resulted in the enactment of protective land laws:
  • Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act, 1876 (SPT Act):
    • Prevents transfer of tribal land to non-tribals.
  • Chota Nagpur Tenancy Act, 1908 (CNT Act):
    • Restricts alienation of land belonging to Adivasis and Dalits.
    • Land can be transferred only within the same community and with Collector’s approval.

Tikri Khurd Lake in Delhi remains unnotified as a wetland despite NGT directions and WAD recommendations, highlighting administrative inaction. This exemplifies the broader failure to implement the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017, in Delhi.

Tikri Khurd Lake:

• Spread across ~40 acres in Narela, under the Delhi Development Authority (DDA).
• Recognized by WAD as a water body based on ground-truthing and technical committee recommendations (2021).
• DDA opposes its notification, calling it merely a “low-lying sewer water accumulation area.”
• NGT (March 29, 2019): Directed conservation regardless of technical classification; criticized DDA for shifting responsibility.

Encroachment & Legal Challenges:

• Over 22% (232 of 1,045) recorded water bodies are proposed for deletion due to encroachment.
• Lack of legal protection without formal wetland notification facilitates this loss.

Ecological Significance of Wetlands:

• Serve critical roles in groundwater recharge, flood mitigation, water purification, and urban microclimate regulation.
• Urban wetlands like Tikri Khurd help prevent waterlogging and floods, especially during monsoon.

Issue of Inter-agency Conflict:

• Delhi's multiple agencies (DDA, Revenue Dept., DJB, WAD) operate in silos.
• Institutional turf wars delay conservation decisions, as evident in Tikri Khurd case.

National Green Tribunal (NGT) Role:

• Acts as a judicial authority for environmental governance.
• Has consistently reprimanded agencies like DDA for non-compliance in wetland conservation.

On June 25, 2025, Axiom-4 mission was launched by SpaceX using the Falcon 9 rocket, carrying four astronauts, including Group Capt. Shubhanshu Shukla from India, aboard the Dragon crew capsule to the International Space Station (ISS). This mission is notable for India's growing human spaceflight participation and highlights advancements in commercial space collaboration.

Mission Overview:

• Mission Name: Axiom-4 (AX-4)
• Operator: Axiom Space (Private company based in the U.S.)
• Launch Vehicle: SpaceX Falcon 9
• Spacecraft: Crew Dragon (SpaceX)
• Indian Representative: Group Capt. Shubhanshu Shukla (Mission Pilot)
• Launch Site: NASA’s Kennedy Space Center, Florida
• Destination: International Space Station (ISS), ~400 km above Earth
• Docking Time: ~28 hours post-launch

Orbital Mechanics – Why 28 Hours to Dock:

• The capsule does not travel straight up to 400 km; instead, it enters an elliptical parking orbit (~200 km).
• Initial orbit period of Dragon: ~88 minutes
• ISS orbit period: ~92 minutes
• Dragon performs phasing burns (thruster firings) to gradually raise its orbit and synchronize with ISS trajectory.
• Docking choreography adheres to orbital mechanics, safety protocols, and velocity matching.

Approach and Docking Procedure:

• Pre-docking Profile: 18 orbits (~28 hours)
• Corridor alignment and velocity control: Capsule slows down from kilometres/sec to centimetres/sec near the ISS.
• Holding Points: 400 m, 220 m, 20 m, and 1 m with go/no-go polls and LIDAR scans.
• Safety Rule: Even one sensor error triggers automated retreat protocol.
• Conservative docking profile selected to prioritize fuel availability, crew rest, and system checkouts.

Relevance for India and Space Exploration:

• Demonstrates India’s growing human spaceflight capability and training.
• Showcases private-public collaboration (NASA, Axiom Space, SpaceX).
• Offers learnings for ISRO’s Gaganyaan mission, especially in orbital rendezvous and docking operations.

The Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh announced the operationalisation of a Quantum Computing Centre in Amaravati by January 1, 2026, with a vision to develop a "Quantum Valley", inspired by the Silicon Valley model. The initiative is supported by IBM, TCS, and L&T, and aims to deliver 100 use cases of Quantum-AI applications by August 15, 2026.

Quantum Computing Centre

• The project will establish India's first state-led Quantum Computing Valley in Amaravati.
• To act as a hub for quantum research, development, and commercialization.
• Will house both hardware and software R&D related to quantum technology.

Technology Collaboration

• IBM: Pioneer in quantum processors (e.g., IBM Quantum System One).
• TCS & L&T: Expected to provide AI integration, project implementation, and infrastructure.

Quantum-AI Synergy

• Quantum computing leverages qubits and quantum entanglement to perform computations exponentially faster than classical computers.
• Use cases may include:
  • Drug discovery and genomics
  • Optimization in logistics and finance
  • Climate modeling and cryptography
• Integration with Artificial Intelligence (AI) offers high-potential in decision-making systems and machine learning.

Digital Governance via WhatsApp

• The A.P. government aims for 100% delivery of public services through WhatsApp.
• It reflects a conversational governance model, aligned with India’s broader push toward Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI).

National Policy Linkages

Aligns with:

• IndiaAI Mission (2024)
• National Quantum Mission (2023–2031): ?6,000 crore allocation for quantum research.
• Digital India Programme and India Semiconductor Mission.

A recent proposal has been made to remove the words “socialism” and “secularism” from the Preamble of the Constitution, citing their insertion during the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976, which was passed during the Emergency period. This has reignited debate on whether these principles are essential features of the Indian Constitution or political additions.

Constitutional Foundations and Legal Backing

• Socialism and Economic Justice: Socialism is embedded through Directive Principles of State Policy such as Articles 38, 39, 41, 42, and 43, which advocate reducing inequality and establishing a welfare state.
• Secularism and Religious Freedom: The Constitution upholds secularism through Articles 25–30, ensuring freedom of religion, cultural rights, and minority protections, even prior to the explicit insertion of the word in 1976.
• Basic Structure Doctrine and Judicial Support: In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973), the Supreme Court ruled that Parliament cannot amend the basic structure of the Constitution. Secularism was affirmed as part of that inviolable structure.

Historical Evidence and Constituent Intent

• Objective Resolution of 1946: The Objective Resolution, adopted by the Constituent Assembly, emphasized justice, equality, liberty, and fraternity — values that align closely with socialism and secularism.
• Constituent Assembly Debates: B.R. Ambedkar in his final speech (1949) spoke of equality as the foundation of the Constitution, reinforcing the spirit of both socialism and secularism, even if not named explicitly in the original Preamble.
• Legality of the 42nd Amendment: The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 formally introduced “socialist” and “secular” into the Preamble. It was consistent with the pre-existing spirit of the Constitution and did not violate the basic structure doctrine.

Contemporary Debate and Implications

• Contesting the 42nd Amendment: The criticism argues that these terms were added under exceptional political circumstances. However, their spirit was always embedded in constitutional provisions and practices.
• Impact on Inclusive Democracy: Removing these terms could weaken the Constitution's pluralistic fabric and may lead to undermining the ideals of equality, justice, and fraternity — particularly for religious and social minorities.
• Need for Constitutional Vigilance: Any move to dilute the foundational values of secularism and socialism must be assessed carefully, with a focus on upholding the Constitution's original vision and democratic integrity.

Practice Question:

The custodial death of Ajith Kumar in Sivaganga district of Tamil Nadu has reignited concerns about police brutality, procedural violations, and the persistence of custodial torture despite repeated judicial censure. The incident has led to political backlash, arrests of policemen, and demands for systemic reforms.

Structural Deficiencies in Policing Practices

• Lack of Procedural Compliance: Ajith Kumar was detained without an FIR or formal complaint, and tortured by a police team in plain clothes, highlighting blatant disregard for Article 21 (Right to Life and Liberty) and CrPC safeguards.
• Prevalence of Third-Degree Methods: Despite the Supreme Court’s warnings (e.g., DK Basu vs State of West Bengal, 1997), use of physical violence to extract confessions continues as a routine practice in India’s criminal justice system.
• Targeting of Marginalised Communities: Victims of custodial violence are often from socially and economically oppressed groups, making them vulnerable to unchecked police power.

Institutional Accountability and Political Response

• Political Fallout and Reactive Measures: Tamil Nadu Chief Minister ordered suspension and arrest of involved officers and transferred the case to the CBI, along with offering monetary compensation and a government job to the victim’s family.
• Judicial Intervention: The Madras High Court (Madurai Bench) strongly condemned the act, equating it to "state-organised crime," and demanded accountability beyond junior officers.
• Repeat Offender Syndrome: The incident is reminiscent of the Sattankulam custodial deaths (2020), reflecting systemic failure in ensuring deterrence and reform after previous high-profile cases.

Legal Safeguards and the Way Forward

• Legal Framework and Gaps: India is yet to ratify the UN Convention Against Torture (UNCAT). The Prevention of Torture Bill, 2010 lapsed and has not been reintroduced. There is no standalone anti-torture law in India.
• Judicial Guidelines: In DK Basu case, the SC laid down detailed procedural safeguards including mandatory medical examination, information to relatives, and rights of arrested persons, but enforcement remains weak.
• Recommendations and Reforms: Establish independent police complaint authorities (as per Prakash Singh judgment, 2006), ensure CCTV surveillance inside police stations (as mandated by SC in 2020), and fast-track trials of custodial violence cases.

Practice Question:

Custodial torture and deaths remain a persistent challenge in India despite the presence of constitutional safeguards and Supreme Court directives. Critically examine the structural deficiencies and legal gaps contributing to this issue. Suggest effective institutional reforms to address the problem.          (250 words)

The Election Commission of India (ECI) has launched a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar, to be completed by July 31, 2024. This has raised concerns of mass exclusion of migrant voters, given the strict verification criteria and limited timeline. Political parties and civil society groups argue that migrant workers—20% of Bihar’s voters—risk wrongful deletion from voter lists.

Legal Safeguards and ECI Criteria

• Definition of 'Ordinary Resident': Under Section 20 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, a person does not lose ‘ordinary residence’ status merely by temporary absence. Migrants intending to return must be retained on the rolls.
• ECI Manual Guidelines: Electoral roll handbooks allow for continued enrollment of temporary migrants, provided they show intent and ability to return to their registered address.
• Risk of Misapplication: Despite legal clarity, strict field verification and short deadlines risk arbitrary removals, particularly when verification teams are under pressure to complete work quickly.

Electoral Dynamics and Male Outmigration

• Voting Data from 2024 General Elections: In Bihar, more women voted than men, despite a higher number of male electors—indicating large-scale absenteeism among male voters, likely due to migration.
• Gender Turnout Disparity: For every 1,000 male electors, there were 1,017.5 women voters, but only 5 women registered per 1,000 men, exposing a participation deficit rooted in labour migration.
• Link to Long-term Migration: Many absentee male voters are long-term migrants, who remain registered in their native villages but reside and work in distant states, causing systemic distortion in voter representation.

Policy Challenges and Electoral Inclusion

• Need for Careful Distinction: The ECI must distinguish between short-term and long-term migrants, to avoid disenfranchising temporary migrants who retain domicile and intent to return.
• Representation Where Residing: For long-term migrants, the electoral system should facilitate re-registration at their place of work, ensuring political accountability in their actual socio-economic environment.
• Timeline Inadequacy: The one-month window for SIR is insufficient for such a complex task and could lead to errors with serious implications for voter rights and democratic participation.

Practice Question:

Discuss the legal and administrative challenges in ensuring the inclusion of internal migrants in India's electoral rolls. Evaluate the recent electoral roll revision process in Bihar in this context, and suggest reforms to safeguard the voting rights of migrant populations.
(250 words)