GS Analyst: Daily Current Affairs

In 2023, the Ministry of Mines identified 30 critical minerals essential for India's economic development and national security. While the report highlighted India’s dependency on imports for 10 of these minerals, it did not adequately address the growing concern about India’s reliance on China, the dominant player in the global critical mineral market.

China’s Dominance in Critical Minerals

China is a major global player in the critical minerals sector, holding unparalleled control over both mineral reserves and processing capabilities.

• Mineral Reserves: China has significant reserves in copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, lithium, gallium, germanium, and graphite, with an exploration investment of $19.4 billion in 2023, leading to the discovery of 132 new deposits, including 34 large ones.
• Processing and Refining Control: China controls:
• 87% of rare earth processing
• 58% of lithium refining
• 68% of silicon processing
• Strategic Investments: China has heavily invested in overseas mining projects and developed unmatched midstream refining capabilities, which raises supply chain vulnerabilities for countries like India, the U.S., and the EU.

China’s Export Control Strategy

China uses its dominance over critical minerals as a strategic tool. This approach includes:

• Weaponizing Exports: Beijing targets minerals essential for sectors like semiconductors, batteries, and high-tech manufacturing.
• Careful Balance: While China restricts minerals like rare earths, antimony, gallium, and germanium, it avoids disrupting its own industries or antagonizing key trade partners, as seen in the 2010 rare earth embargo against Japan and its recent actions in 2023.

India’s Dependency on China for Critical Minerals

India’s dependency on China for certain critical minerals is alarming. Below are six minerals where India’s dependency exceeds 40%:

• Bismuth: 6% (used in pharmaceuticals and chemicals, with few alternative sources).
• Lithium: 82% (critical for EV batteries, with China controlling 58% of global refining).
• Silicon: 76% (important for semiconductors and solar panels, with few countries having advanced processing capabilities).
• Titanium: 6% (used in aerospace and defense, though alternatives exist, the costs are high).
• Tellurium: 8% (important for solar power and thermoelectric devices, with China controlling 60% of production).
• Graphite: 4% (indispensable for EV batteries and steel, with China controlling 67.2% of global production, including battery-grade material).

Why Does India Rely on Imports?

India’s reliance on imports is driven by several factors:

• Mineral Deposits: While India is rich in mineral resources, many critical minerals are located deep underground, requiring high-risk investments in exploration and mining technologies that discourage private sector participation.
• Processing Limitations: India lacks the technological capability to process certain minerals. For instance, despite the discovery of 9 million tonnes of lithium in Jammu and Kashmir, India faces significant challenges in extracting lithium from clay deposits due to limited processing capabilities.

India’s Efforts to Secure Critical Minerals

India has taken a proactive approach to reduce its dependency on China:

• KABIL: It is a joint venture of three state-owned companies aimed at securing overseas mineral assets.
• Strategic Partnerships: India has joined initiatives like the Minerals Security Partnership and the Critical Raw Materials Club to diversify supply sources and strengthen global relationships.
• Research and Development: India is investing in research through organizations like the Geological Survey of India and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). The focus is on enhancing mineral exploration, improving processing technologies, and reducing dependency on virgin minerals through recycling and circular economy practices.
• Incentive Programs: The government is also offering production-linked incentives for the extraction and recycling of critical minerals to boost domestic capabilities.

Recently, Donald Trump, the former U.S. President, expressed concern over Panama's control of the canal, particularly in light of China's growing global influence. Trump is troubled by the idea of any foreign power, especially China, gaining control over the canal or its operations, given the canal's importance to U.S. trade and military strategy.

Strategic Importance of the Panama Canal

• The Panama Canal is an 82-km (51-mile) artificial waterway that connects the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans through Panama through the Isthmus of Panama.
• It is a man-made water passage.
• It cuts through the middle of Panama, a country occupying the strip of land between Central America and South America.
• It provides the shortest maritime route between the two oceans, significantly reducing the time and distance ships need to travel compared to the alternative routes around South America.
• This makes it a critical global trade route, impacting international commerce and military strategy.

• Physical features:The Canal’s principal physical features are
  • Gatun Lake, and the central man-made lake stretching nearly all the way across the Isthmus;
  • Gaillard Cut, the eight-mile-long excavation through the Continental Divide that extends Gatun Lake to Pedro Miguel Locks
    • the locks on both sides of the Isthmus that raise ships between sea level and the lake (Gatun Locks on the Atlantic and Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks on the Pacific)
  • the ports of Balboa on the Pacific and Cristobal on the Atlantic
• The United States is its main user, accounting for 74 percent of cargo, followed by China with 21 percent.
• 5 percent of world maritime trade passes through the canal, which connects more than 1,900 ports in 170 countries.

History of the Panama Canal

• Early Exploration and Challenges: Before the construction of the Panama Canal, ships had to sail around the southern tip of South America (Cape Horn or the Strait of Magellan), which was both time-consuming and inefficient.
• In the early 20th century, the possibility of creating a shortcut through Panama was realized.
• The canal was built between 1904 and 1914, mostly by the US, with then-President Theodore Roosevelt overseeing the construction.
• The canal was operated and controlled by the U.S. until the Torrijos-Carter Treaty of 1977, which set the stage for the handover of control to Panama by 1999.
• The Panama Canal was officially handed over to Panama on December 31, 1999, marking the end of more than 85 years of U.S. control.

In recent years, there has been growing interest in the intelligence of cephalopods—octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish—due to their remarkable cognitive abilities. As more is discovered about their brain structures, learning capacities, and behaviors, there are increasing calls for better treatment of these highly intelligent animals, especially in captivity.

About Cephalopods:

• Cephalopods are marine animals that belong to the mollusk group and include octopuses, squid, cuttlefish, and the chambered nautilus.
• These animals vary widely in size and behavior, from tiny squid only a few millimeters long to massive species like the giant and colossal squid, which can grow over 40 feet long and weigh up to 450 kg.
• While cephalopods live in diverse environments—from the deep ocean to vibrant coral reefs—they all share some remarkable features, including:
  • advanced hunting skills
  • excellent vision
  • highly developed nervous systems
• These creatures are famous for their ability to change color and texture, communicate, and exhibit complex learning behaviors, all of which hint at their intelligence.
• Intelligence of cephalopods: The intelligence of cephalopods is still being studied, but some interesting facts have emerged:
  • Brain Size and Neurons: Octopuses, especially the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris), have around 500 million neurons, which is relatively large for their small body size. This is similar to the number of neurons in a rabbit or turkey. What's unique about octopuses is that over half of their neurons are not located in their central brain but in their arms, allowing them to perform complex tasks like opening jars and solving puzzles independently.
  • Behavioral Evidence: Cephalopods are known for their learning abilities. For instance, the common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) can form associations, learning to predict when food will appear based on visual cues. They can also perform more complex tasks like reversal learning, where they change their behavior in response to different rewards. This type of learning is seen in vertebrates like birds and mammals.
  • Camouflage and Communication: Many cephalopods, including cuttlefish, use camouflage to blend into their environment or to communicate with each other. Their ability to control hundreds of tiny pigment sacs, or chromatophores, in their skin allows them to create intricate patterns. Some cephalopods even use these patterns to attract mates or warn off predators.

The Science Behind Cephalopod Intelligence

While it is difficult to measure intelligence across species, scientists have developed some methods to understand cephalopod cognitive abilities:

• Brain-to-Body Ratio: Octopuses, with their large number of neurons relative to their size, show cognitive abilities similar to those of vertebrates like birds and rabbits. However, their brains are structured differently from mammals, with many of their neurons located in the arms rather than in the central brain.
• Learning and Memory: Cephalopods are not only capable of forming associations (like learning when food will appear after seeing a certain image), but they can also learn to inhibit their impulses. In a study with cuttlefish, many chose to wait for a more preferred food (live shrimp) rather than eat a less desirable snack (crab) immediately. This kind of self-control and delayed gratification is a sign of advanced cognitive abilities.

The Union Cabinet approved the National Quantum Mission (NQM) in 2023, and the mission is set to be implemented from 2023 to 2031.  As part of the mission, India also plans to launch a quantum satellite in the next 2-3 years to experiment with quantum communications.

What is the National Quantum Mission (NQM)?

• The National Quantum Mission (NQM) is an initiative by the Department of Science & Technology to boost India's development and use of quantum physics.
• The mission aims to revolutionize various sectors, particularly communications and sensing systems, by leveraging the principles of quantum physics, which can provide enhanced abilities beyond classical physics.
• India’s Quantum Satellite: A quantum satellite is a spacecraft that uses quantum physics for secure communications. Unlike traditional communication technologies, quantum physics can make messages much harder to intercept, providing a higher level of security, which is crucial in the modern age of cyber threats and eavesdropping.
• The quantum satellite will be an essential part of India's push to explore quantum key distribution (QKD), a technique in quantum cryptography that secures the transmission of information.
• The satellite's purpose is to facilitate long-distance, tamper-proof communication by detecting eavesdropping attempts during the transmission of quantum keys.

Why is Quantum Communication Important?

• In the world of traditional cryptographic security, such as end-to-end encryption, messages are coded and only the recipient has the decryption key. However, quantum computers pose a risk as they may eventually be able to crack many of the encryption systems currently in use.
• In contrast, quantum cryptography, especially Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), is considered much more secure because it exploits the principles of quantum mechanics to detect if someone is trying to intercept the communication.

Quantum Key Distribution (QKD):

• QKD uses quantum physics principles, such as quantum measurement and quantum entanglement, to secure information. In quantum communication, if someone tries to measure the quantum system (like photons), it will change the system’s state, and the parties involved in the communication will be alerted that the message has been compromised.
• Quantum measurement: If an eavesdropper tries to intercept quantum information (e.g., photons), it alters the photons' state, signaling that the communication has been compromised.
• Quantum entanglement: When two quantum particles (like photons) are entangled, any change in one will immediately affect the other. This property makes the communication tamper-proof.
• These principles ensure that if an eavesdropper tries to intercept the key, they will be detected, making QKD a very secure method of transmission.
• Global Implementation of QKD
  • China currently operates the world's largest QKD network with three quantum satellites and four ground stations. Their experiments in quantum communication have proven successful in transmitting secure data over long distances, including demonstrations between ground stations and airborne platforms like balloons.
  • In India, researchers from the Raman Research Institute in Bengaluru have identified Hanle in Ladakh as an ideal location for conducting QKD experiments due to its optimal atmospheric conditions for quantum communications.

Challenges in Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)

While QKD has great potential, it is still facing some challenges:

• Hardware limitations: QKD is heavily dependent on specialized hardware, which can be costly and difficult to upgrade.
• Authentication issues: Unlike traditional cryptographic systems, QKD does not inherently authenticate the source of the transmitted key, leaving room for potential vulnerabilities.
• Infrastructure cost: The implementation of QKD networks can be expensive, requiring substantial investments in both hardware and infrastructure.
• Denial-of-service attacks: If eavesdroppers detect a transmission, they can stop the message from being received, leading to interruptions in communication.
• Despite these challenges, quantum cryptography is seen as a step forward in securing communications, especially in the face of threats posed by quantum computing.

Physicists revised the minimum mass of dark matter particles from 10^-31 proton masses to 2.3 × 10^-30 proton masses. This change, based on new simulations of a dwarf galaxy, provides deeper insights into the behavior and distribution of dark matter in the universe.

What is Dark Matter?

• Dark Matter is an invisible substance that accounts for about five-sixths of the total matter in the universe.
• Though it cannot be directly observed, its presence is inferred from its gravitational effects on visible matter, such as stars and galaxies.
• Unlike ordinary matter, dark matter does not emit, absorb, or reflect light, making it extremely difficult to detect.
• Minimum mass: For decades, scientists have been trying to understand the properties of dark matter, particularly the mass of its particles. These particles are believed to be non-zero mass to enable the formation of large-scale structures in the universe, such as galaxies and clusters of galaxies.

The Distribution of Dark Matter

• Dark matter is thought to be uniformly spread across the universe, but its distribution on smaller scales remains uncertain.
• Early estimates, like those made by Jacobus Kapteyn in 1922, suggested that dark matter exists at a low density of about 0003 solar masses per cubic light-year. This would mean that even in your house, there could be dark matter, with a mass equivalent to a trillion protons.
• However, this only applies on large scales (millions of light years), and doesn't necessarily hold at smaller scales (e.g., inside a room or your body), where dark matter may be unevenly distributed.
• Dark matter might be spread uniformly or could exist in clumps (lumps). If it is spread uniformly like flour, it would be found all around us, though in very low densities.
• However, if dark matter is clumpy, there could be large regions without dark matter, with the spacing between clumps potentially spanning light years.

The Size and Nature of Dark Matter Particles

The mass of dark matter particles plays a critical role in how they interact and how they are distributed. Here's a breakdown of the behavior based on different particle masses:

• Heavy Particles (100 proton masses or more): If dark matter particles had a mass of around 100 times that of a proton, the separation between them would be about 7 cm. At this scale, dark matter particles would be present not only in your house but in your body as well.
  • The density of dark matter would be high, with particles frequently interacting with each other.
• Moderate Mass Particles (around 10^19 proton masses): If dark matter particles had a mass of about 10^19 times that of a proton, the separation between them would be around 30 km, making dark matter particles rare in everyday life. They would occasionally visit your house, moving at speeds around 300 km/s.
• Light Particles (10^-11 to 10^-31 proton masses): Very light dark matter particles (like those with 10^-11 proton masses) would have very large wavelengths and be spread out more like a fluid rather than discrete particles. If these particles were lighter than this, their wavelengths would be incredibly large (for example, 200 light years for particles with masses of 10^-31 proton masses).
  • As the particles become lighter, the concept of individual particles becomes less meaningful, and they behave more like a collective wave of matter. This explains why smaller masses are associated with the large-scale distribution of dark matter in galaxies and clusters.

New Insights from Computational Physics

• The most recent advances in understanding dark matter come from numerical simulations.
• Theoretical physicists used data from the Leo II dwarf galaxy (a galaxy orbiting the Milky Way) to estimate the density of dark matter within it.
• By solving the modified Schrödinger equation for dark matter particles, they found that the inner regions of galaxies, like Leo II, require heavier dark matter particles than previously thought.
• Particles with masses around 10^-31 proton masses could not account for the amount of invisible mass observed in these inner regions.
• This finding suggests that the mass of dark matter particles is likely heavier than the earlier theoretical lower bound.
• The increased mass helps explain the crowding of dark matter in the inner parts of galaxies, where densities are higher.

The C.S.I. Church and Eleanor Isabel May’s tomb, located in Old Munnar, Idukki, Kerala, hold both historical and cultural significance, representing a key aspect of the colonial-era tea plantation industry and the enduring legacy of British influence in the region.

About

• The British began establishing tea plantations in Munnar over 125 years ago, which contributed to the development of the region as a key economic hub.
• Henry Mansfield Knight, the General Manager of the British Tea Planting Company, was one of the key figures in Munnar’s early tea industry.
• Death and Burial of Eleanor Isabel May:
  • Eleanor Isabel May, wife of Henry Mansfield Knight, tragically died in 1894 at the age of 24 from cholera.
  • In accordance with her last wish, Henry Knight buried her on a hilltop in Old Munnar. The tomb, built to honor her, remains an iconic historical site in the region.
  • In memory of Eleanor, Henry Knight and his friends built the C.S.I. Church in Old Munnar, which was completed in 1911.
• Architectural style: The church was constructed in a Scottish Gothic architectural style using materials imported from England, including rough-hewn granite and the church bell.
  • The church’s architecture reflects British influence, particularly in its use of rough-hewn granite and Scottish-style Gothic design.
• The church’s location offers a scenic view of the surrounding hills, making it not only a religious site but also a significant tourist attraction in Munnar.
• Initially, services were held in English and Tamil, but today, Malayalam services are also conducted, reflecting the integration of the local culture into the church’s practice.

An anti-corruption outfit in Bangladesh has initiated investigation into the USD 12.65 billion Rooppur nuclear powerplant that is being constructed with Russian assistance.

About Rooppur nuclear power plant

• The under construction Rooppur nuclear power plant is located 160 km from Dhaka and is one of the largest nuclear projects that Russsian nuclear major Rosatom has been building.
• The deal to build the power plant was initiated in February 2011 which led to an initial contract between Rosatomm and Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission in December 2015.
• Subsequently the Bangladesh Atomic Regulatory Authority issued the first site licence for the plant in June 2016. The project has been under construction since 2017 and the first unit of the nuclear power project is expected to be completed in 2025. Once fully operational the power plant will generate 2400 megawatt electricity.
• Rooppur power project led to a trilateral agreement among India, Bangladesh and Russia in 2018 when India’s nuclear players such as NPCIL began to assist the construction of the units.

Retired Supreme Court judge V Ramasubramanian has been appointed the new chairman of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), the nodal body which can inquire into violations of human rights by government or a public servant.

About NHRC

• NHRC is a statutory body tasked with safeguarding the fundamental human rights of all citizens.
• The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) was established on October 12, 1993.
• Its statute is contained in the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, and is in conformity with the Paris Principles adopted at the first international workshop on national institutions for the promotion and protection of human rights held in Paris in October, 1991, and endorsed by the General Assembly of the United Nations in Resolution 48/134 of December 20, 1993.
• The Commission is an embodiment of India's concern for the promotion and protection of human rights.
• NHRC is committed to provide independent views on issues within the parlance of the Constitution or in law for the time being enforced for the protection of human rights. The Commission takes independent stand.
• NHRC has the powers of a civil court trying a suit under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 in respect of summoning and enforcing the attendance of witnesses; discovery and production of any document; receiving evidence on affidavits; requisitioning any public record or copy thereof from any court or office; issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses or documents and request of public record as listed under Section 13 of the Act.
• Composition: The Commission consists of a Chairperson, five full-time Members and seven deemed Members. 
• Appointment: The Chairperson and the members of the National Human Rights Commission are appointed by the President on the recommendations of a six-member committee consisting of:
  • The Prime Minister as its head
  • The Speaker of the Lok Sabha
  • The Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha
  • The Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha
  • The Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha
  • The Union Home Minister

The central government has abolished the no-detention policy for students in classes 5 and 8, allowing schools to hold back students who fail annual examinations. The change affects more than 3,000 central government schools, including Kendriya Vidyalayas, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas and Sainik Schools.

About the Policy change

• The policy was initially introduced as part of the 2009 Right to Education (RTE) Act that made free and compulsory education a fundamental right for children aged 6-14 years.
• The policy change, notified on December 16 through amendments to the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Rules, 2010, introduces what it calls a balanced approach to student assessment.
• While allowing schools to hold back students, it mandates remedial instruction and re-examination opportunities.
• Under the newly notified Rules, schools must provide failed students with additional instruction and a chance to retake examinations within two months.
• These assessments must be “competency-based examinations to achieve the holistic development of the child and not be based on memorisation and procedural skills.” 
• Following the amendment to the Right to Education Act (RTE) in 2019, at least 18 states and Union Territories have already done away with the 'no-detention policy' for the two classes.

The Swiss government recently announced its decision to suspend the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) clause in the Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) with India. However, the decision will not delay the ratification and implementation of EFTA-India TEPA.

What is EFTA-India TEPA?

• India and the four-nation European Free Trade Association (EFTA) signed the pact, officially dubbed as TEPA (Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement), in March.
• Its members are Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland.
• This trade agreement is expected to enhance trade relations between India and the EFTA bloc, including Switzerland, irrespective of the MFN issue.
• The agreement is yet to be implemented.

This Christmas, artisans in Srinagar have breathed new life into the extinct dodo bird, which disappeared from the world in 1681, using the age-old craft of papier mâché. These colorful, symbolic creations serve not only as artistic expressions but also as poignant reminders of the bird's tragic extinction and its connection to the environment.

About

• Kashmiri papier mâché dodos are not merely replicas; they are vibrantly colored and adorned with floral and forest motifs.
• These prints symbolize the connection between the bird and the forests, which were largely responsible for its extinction due to habitat loss.
• While the real dodo was known for its grey or brown plumage, the papier mâché versions are embellished with bright and symbolic patterns, making them a striking blend of tradition and environmental advocacy.
• Kashmir’s Papier Mâché Craft: Kashmir's papier mâché craft has a rich history of over 600 years, with its roots deeply embedded in Persian art.
  • Traditionally, artisans would create items such as decorative bowls, plates, and figurines, often influenced by Persian designs. The introduction of the dodo to this craft scene is a recent development.

India's governance challenges, especially within the bureaucracy, have prompted calls for urgent reforms. The Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and its inefficient functioning continue to hamper effective governance, despite the country’s economic growth. Administrative reforms have been proposed, with efforts by the government to introduce measures such as lateral entry, but systemic issues persist.

Legacy and Challenges of the IAS

• Colonial Legacy: The IAS, which evolved from the British-era Indian Civil Service, has remained central to India's governance. However, the legacy of colonial bureaucratic structure has left deep-rooted issues, including political interference and outdated practices.
• Politicisation and Lack of Specialisation: Frequent political interventions in transfers and promotions, coupled with a lack of domain specialisation, hinder bureaucrats from becoming effective policy specialists.
• Corruption and Inefficiency: India’s bureaucracy faces significant inefficiency, with poor quality of policy implementation as reflected in international rankings, undermining the effectiveness of governance and economic growth.

Government's Efforts and Resistance to Reform

• Push for Lateral Entry: The Modi government has sought to diversify governance by introducing lateral entry, recruiting domain experts from various fields into senior bureaucratic roles, aiming to bring fresh perspectives to policymaking.
• Challenges and Resistance: Despite the efforts, lateral entry has faced criticism from within the bureaucracy, with concerns about undermining morale, creating distortion in promotions, and neglecting reservation provisions for marginalized groups.
• Modi’s U-turn on Lateral Entry: The government has recently backtracked on certain lateral entry reforms under political pressure, revealing the contentious nature of such initiatives.

Challenges and Path Forward

• Political Interference and Institutional Resistance: The IAS faces resistance to reforms such as performance-based promotions and specialisation due to entrenched seniority-based progression and political interference in bureaucratic appointments.
• Need for a Multifaceted Approach: Proposals like the Civil Services Standards, Performance, and Accountability Bill (2010) and judicial interventions have had limited success, with political resistance and lack of enforcement preventing significant reform.
• Strengthening Accountability and Efficiency: Reform should prioritise merit-based recruitment, domain expertise, protection from political transfers, and data-driven performance evaluation, enhancing the accountability and efficiency of India’s bureaucratic system.

Practice Question: 

Q. Critically analyse the challenges facing India's bureaucracy, particularly the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), and evaluate the effectiveness of recent administrative reforms such as lateral entry. What additional measures are needed to modernise the bureaucracy for enhancing governance and supporting India’s economic aspirations?

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is set to miss its target of revitalizing a fully functional dispute settlement system by the end of 2024. The Appellate Body (AB), the second-tier dispute resolution mechanism, has been non-operational for five years due to the United States blocking the appointment of members. This obstruction has led to delays in resolving trade disputes, highlighting the growing dysfunction of the WTO.

The WTO’s Promise and Past Achievements

• Foundation of the WTO: Established in 1995, the WTO introduced a comprehensive legal framework governing global trade, with an effective two-tier dispute settlement system. This system, including the Appellate Body, was seen as a significant step towards international rule of law.
• Shift to a Rule-Based System: The WTO marked the transition from diplomacy-based multilateralism (GATT era) to a rule-based system that placed international legal structures above national interests, creating binding commitments for its members.
• The Promise of Global Governance: The WTO’s dispute settlement system was regarded as a constitutional project for global trade, aiming to ensure compliance with trade rules and facilitate equitable global economic relations.

The Unravelling of the WTO System

• China’s Rise and U.S. Discontent: The U.S. facilitated China's WTO accession in 2001, hoping China would adopt free-market principles. However, China’s continued state-led policies led to dissatisfaction in the U.S., which believed China exploited the WTO system to its advantage.
• S. Hostility Towards the WTO: The U.S. views the WTO, particularly the Appellate Body, as an obstacle to countering China's trade practices. The blocking of Appellate Body appointments reflects the U.S. strategy to weaken the WTO system to gain freedom in dealing with China.
• Impact on Global Trade: With the WTO’s dispute settlement mechanism dysfunctional, the U.S. has increasingly resorted to unilateral trade measures, such as the 25% tariff on Chinese products in 2018, bypassing WTO law, and signaling a shift towards trade policies based on international politics rather than international law.

A Shift in the Global Trade Order

• The WTO's ‘Thinning Legality’: Experts argue that the WTO is undergoing a “regime change,” moving from the era of strong legal commitments to a system where countries are reclaiming control over their trade policies, reverting to a more flexible, diplomacy-based approach reminiscent of the GATT era.
• GATTification of the WTO: This shift is seen as the “GATTification” of the WTO, where international trade laws are less binding, and nations increasingly pursue trade policies that suit their geopolitical and economic interests, bypassing the WTO’s rules-based framework.
• Reversal of WTO’s Legal Revolution: The ongoing erosion of the WTO’s dispute settlement function reflects a broader trend of de-legalisation in international trade relations, as countries return to more unilateral, politically-driven actions rather than relying on WTO adjudication.

Practice Question:

Q. Examine the role of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in international trade governance and critically evaluate the consequences of the United States’ blocking of the Appellate Body’s functioning. How does this reflect a shift from a rules-based multilateral trade system to a more politicized trade environment?

The India State of Forest Report 2023 has reported that 25% of India’s land is covered by forests or trees, presenting a positive image. However, issues regarding the implementation of forest laws, especially amidst industrial and developmental pressures, have emerged, undermining effective conservation. Recent amendments, such as the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act 2023, further complicate forest governance and conservation efforts.

Challenges in Forest Governance

• Colonial Legacy and Governance: Post-Independence, India’s forest policies aimed to break from colonial views that treated forests solely as sources of timber, inherited through the Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 and the Forest (Rights) Act 2006.
• Policy Implementation Gaps: Despite legal frameworks, pressures from industrialization, and climate change have hampered effective implementation of conservation measures, resulting in forest cover loss.
• Weak Enforcement: There is an ongoing issue of ineffective enforcement, allowing developmental activities to continue without adequate consideration for ecological impact, weakening India’s climate commitments.

Issues with Forest Cover and Carbon Sequestration

• Misleading Forest Cover Figures: The 25% forest cover statistic hides the reality of biodiversity loss, particularly in the Western Ghats, Northeast, and mangrove ecosystems, which have been increasingly threatened by human activity.
• Lack of Transparency in Carbon Estimates: The report fails to provide clarity on the actual carbon sequestration potential of degraded lands or account for current land-use practices, questioning the validity of claims on carbon sink growth.
• Commercial Plantations vs Natural Forests: The inclusion of commercial plantations in official forest statistics exacerbates the issue, as these plantations have lower ecological and carbon sequestration value compared to natural forests.

Financial and Operational Gaps

• Fire-related Losses: Forest fires have increased significantly in northern districts, with inadequate resources, manpower, and technology to effectively manage and control such disasters.
• Distortion of Forest Inventory: The inclusion of plantations in official forest cover statistics distorts the true state of India’s forests, masking the actual decline in natural ecosystems.
• Weakening Environmental Safeguards: The recent Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act 2023 has further reduced the protective scope of the Forest (Conservation) Act 1980, allowing for increased developmental activities in forest areas at the cost of conservation.

Practice Question:

Q. Critically examine the challenges in India’s forest governance, particularly in light of the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act 2023. Discuss the implications of the growing gap between theoretical forest cover and actual ecological health, and suggest measures to strengthen forest conservation in India.