The Supreme Court has amended its recruitment rules to include reservations for OBCs, PwDs, ex-servicemen, and dependents of freedom fighters, aligning its staff appointments with central affirmative action norms.

Reform under Article 146(2) of the Constitution: A Milestone in Institutional Affirmative Action

Constitutional Backing and Legal Authority

• Amendment Power under Article 146(2):
• Article 146(2) empowers the Chief Justice of India (CJI) to make appointments and frame service conditions for officers and servants of the Supreme Court.
• The amendment was made to Rule 4A of the Supreme Court Officers and Servants (Conditions of Service and Conduct) Rules, 1961.

Nature and Scope of the Reform

• Inclusion of New Reservation Categories:
• The amendment mandates reservations for SCs, STs, OBCs, Persons with Disabilities (PwDs), Ex-servicemen, and Dependents of Freedom Fighters in direct recruitment to non-judicial posts.
• It specifies that such reservation shall be in accordance with Central Government rules, subject to modifications by the CJI.
• Introduction of Roster System:
• A 200-point roster system has been adopted, following the precedent set in K. Sabharwal v. State of Punjab (1995) to ensure equitable and rotational distribution of reserved posts.

Historical Context and Delay in Implementation

• Delayed Adoption of OBC Quota:
• The Supreme Court had upheld 27% reservation for OBCs in Indira Sawhney v. Union of India (1992).
• Despite being the validating authority of OBC reservation in public employment, the apex court itself took over three decades to adopt the same in its own administrative machinery.

Significance of the Reform

• Institutional Alignment with Affirmative Action:
• The move ensures the Supreme Court’s internal recruitment policies reflect constitutional commitments to social justice.
• Senior Advocate and Rajya Sabha MP P. Wilson termed the reform a “historic step” toward aligning judicial institutions with national equity mandates.
• Symbolic Importance:
• The reform comes under the tenure of Chief Justice B.R. Gavai, the second Dalit Chief Justice of India—making the move symbolically resonant and institutionally progressive.

Way Forward

• Codification and Transparency: The Supreme Court should codify reservation policies and recruitment procedures to ensure transparency and accountability in implementation.
• Periodic Review Mechanism: A standing committee may be constituted to monitor compliance and ensure continuous updating based on changes in central government policies.
• Judicial Inclusivity Beyond Staff: Broader reforms are needed to enhance representation of marginalised communities in judicial appointments, law clerkships, and judicial internships.
• Capacity Building: Special training programmes for candidates from reserved categories should be introduced to ensure equity in performance and career progression.

The ?72,000-crore Great Nicobar Infrastructure Project (GNIP) has come under scrutiny after experts pointed out that the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) downplays the region’s tsunami and earthquake risks, despite scientific studies indicating high seismic vulnerability in the area.

Great Nicobar Island Infrastructure Project (GNIP)

Geographical & Ecological Context

• Great Nicobar Island (GNI)
• Largest and southernmost island of the Nicobar group, part of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands UT.
• Home to Galathea Bay, Campbell Bay, and Indira Point (southernmost point of India).
• Declared part of Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB).
• Biodiversity Hotspot: Tropical evergreen forests, endemic flora and fauna (e.g., Nicobar crab-eating macaque, leatherback turtles).
• Galathea Bay Wildlife Sanctuary (denotified in 2021)
• Notified in 1997 to conserve nesting sites of leatherback turtles.
• Falls under Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) 1A – highest ecological sensitivity.
• Denotification contradicts the Marine Turtle Action Plan, 2021.

Project Overview & Strategic Relevance

• Key Components of the Project:
• International Container Transshipment Terminal (ICTT) at Galathea Bay.
• Greenfield International Airport
• Gas and Solar-Based Power Plant (450 MVA)
• Greenfield Township and Tourism Projects
• Cruise Terminal, Ship Repair & EXIM Ports (recent additions)

Strategic Importance:

• Located close to Malacca, Sunda, and Lombok Straits — global maritime chokepoints.
• Enables India’s maritime surveillance against increasing Chinese activity in the Indo-Pacific.
• Aligns with:
• Act East Policy
• QUAD's Indo-Pacific Vision
• Maritime India Vision 2030
• AmritKaal Vision 2047

Major Concerns

• Environmental Concerns:
• Deforestation: Over 130 sq. km of pristine forest to be cleared.
• Tree felling: Actual numbers could exceed 10 million; initial estimates were under-reported.
• Loss of coral reefs and marine biodiversity due to port construction in CRZ 1A
• Compensatory afforestation in Haryana and Madhya Pradesh — ecologically non-equivalent.
• Legal & Institutional Concerns:
• Violation of SC Guidelines from Shekhar Singh Commission (2002):
• Ban on tree felling in tribal reserves.
• Afforestation before clearance — not followed.
• Violation of FRA, 2006: No Free, Prior, Informed Consent (FPIC) of Shompen and Nicobarese tribes.
• Lack of transparency: Environmental clearance details withheld under national security pretext.
• Procedural Gaps:
• EIA conducted by private agency (Vimta Labs); questioned for downplaying tsunami risk.
• IIT-Kanpur study (2019) flagged high seismic risk; this was not cited in EIA.
• No site-specific seismic studies done, despite proximity to Andaman-Sumatra Subduction Zone (2004 tsunami epicenter nearby).

Tribal Rights and Socio-Cultural Sensitivity

• Shompen Tribe:
• One of India’s Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
• Live in isolation; depend entirely on forests.
• Project threatens livelihood, culture, and existence.
• Forest Rights Act, 2006 (FRA):
• Mandates Gram Sabha consent for any diversion of forest land.
• Disregarded in project execution.

Way Forward: Policy Recommendations

The Union Cabinet has approved the Employment-Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme with an outlay of ?99,446 crore, aiming to create over 3.5 crore jobs over two years, especially in the manufacturing sector, and to be implemented by the Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO).

Employment-Linked Incentive (ELI)

Objective of the Scheme:

• The ELI Scheme aims to incentivize job creation in the formal sector, particularly manufacturing.
• Part of a five-pronged strategy announced in Budget 2024–25 to improve youth employability and formal job access.

Scheme Features:

• Outlay: ?99,446 crore.
• Timeframe: From August 1, 2025 to July 31, 2027.
• Target: Creation of over 5 crore jobs; direct benefits to 1.92 crore newly employed individuals.
• EPFO as implementing agency.

Incentive Structure:

• Employee Incentives:
• Workers earning up to ?1 lakh/month will get an EPF wage equivalent up to ?15,000, paid in two installments:
• 1st after 6 months of continuous service.
• 2nd after 12 months of continuous service.
• Part of the incentive will be deposited in a locked savings instrument, withdrawable later.
• Employer Incentives:
• Employers registered with EPFO to get up to ?3,000/month per new employee for two years (sustained employment ?6 months).
• For manufacturing sector: benefits extended to 3rd and 4th years as well.

Key Concerns and Challenges:

• EPFO's Mandate: Primarily a custodian of employee savings, not designed for employment creation or subsidy disbursal.
• Transparency: Ambiguity about how funds will be allocated and monitored.
• Need for Separate Implementation Agency: Suggestions to create a dedicated body to oversee ELI.

During PM Narendra Modi’s visit to Trinidad and Tobago, both nations signed six bilateral agreements to enhance cooperation in pharmaceuticals, finance, agriculture, and digital education. Trinidad and Tobago also joined India-led global initiatives such as the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) and the Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA).

Trinidad and Tobago

Bilateral Agreements:

• At least six MoUs were signed to promote cooperation in the financial and pharmaceutical sectors, thereby positioning India as a prominent player in the Caribbean market.
• Notably, an MoU was signed for Indian Grant Assistance for Quick Impact Projects (QIPs), capped at $50,000 per project, with a maximum of five projects per financial year.

Multilateral Engagements:

• Trinidad and Tobago joined two key India-led global initiatives:
• Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) – a UN-recognised coalition aimed at promoting disaster-resilient infrastructure globally.
• Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA) – a multilateral platform to promote sustainable biofuels and foster technology sharing and policy coordination.

Developmental Support Initiatives by India:

• India will gift 2,000 laptops to school students in Trinidad and Tobago to support digital education.
• A grant of $1 million worth of agro-machinery was extended to the National Agricultural Marketing and Development Corporation (NAMDEVCO).
• India committed technical assistance in millet cultivation, seaweed-based fertilizers, and natural farming practices.

Soft Power and Strategic Footprint:

• The gesture of gifting laptops and promoting education supports India’s digital diplomacy and capacity-building efforts in the Global South.
• Through these engagements, India is strengthening its Act East & Caribbean Outreach strategy and expanding influence via development diplomacy and South-South cooperation.

Geostrategic Significance:

• These developments align with India’s effort to secure allies among Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which are crucial stakeholders in global climate and disaster-resilience negotiations.
• This also reflects India’s increasing role as a development partner offering non-reciprocal, demand-driven assistance.

According to the World Bank’s latest inequality assessment (2023), India has witnessed a substantial decline in inequality and extreme poverty between 2011–12 and 2022–23. With a Gini Index score of 25.5, India is now ranked 4th most equal country globally, behind the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, and Belarus.

Gini Index – Concept and India’s Performance:

• The Gini Index (or Gini coefficient) measures income, wealth, or consumption inequality.
• It ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 100 (perfect inequality).
• India’s Gini Index in 2022–23 is 25.5, placing it in the “moderately low inequality” category (Gini score between 25 and 30).
• India now ranks better than major economies like China (35.7) and the USA (41.8) in income equality.

Trends in Poverty Reduction:

• Extreme poverty in India has declined from 2% (2011–12) to 2.3% (2022–23).
• This improvement aligns with broader inclusive development efforts and targeted social welfare schemes.

Policy Attributions and Global Rankings:

• The Indian government attributes this progress to multiple flagship welfare schemes, including DBT (Direct Benefit Transfers), PM-GKY, PM-AwasYojana, Ujjwala, and Jan DhanYojana.
• The top three countries in equality according to the World Bank’s 2023 Gini Index:

1. Slovak Republic
2. Slovenia
3. Belarus
4. India

Context:

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has sought scientific evidence from the Environment Ministry for attributing forest cover loss in ISFR 2023 to the Forest Rights Act, warning that such unverified claims may undermine the Act’s implementation.

Forest Rights Act, 2006 (FRA, 2006):

Overview and Purpose

• FRA, 2006 is also known as the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act.
• Aims to correct historical injustice done to forest-dwelling communities by recognizing their rights over forest land and resources.
• Enacted to secure livelihoods, ensure tribal empowerment, and promote sustainable forest governance.

Need for FRA

• Tribal communities have lived in and depended on forests for centuries.
• During British rule, they were alienated from their traditional habitats.
• Post-Independence policies continued to exclude forest dwellers from ownership and governance.
• Development projects often led to displacement without recognition of rights.
• FRA was enacted to:
  • Acknowledge traditional rights.
  • Provide legal security.
  • Ensure participatory forest conservation.

Objectives of FRA

• Empower and strengthen local self-governance.
• Address livelihood security and contribute to poverty alleviation.
• Promote conservation and sustainable use of forest resources.
• Democratize forest governance through Gram Sabha

Key Provisions of FRA

Types of Rights Recognized

• Land Rights:
  • Legal title for forest land cultivated before 13 December 2005.
  • No documentary proof required for up to 4 hectares, if used for subsistence.
• Use Rights:
  • Right to collect and use Minor Forest Produce (MFP) (e.g., herbs, tendu leaves, medicinal plants).
  • Grazing rights and access to water bodies.
  • Use of traditional migration routes by pastoralist communities.
• Community Rights:
  • Rights over Nistar lands, community forest resources, etc.
  • Habitat rights for PVTGs and pre-agricultural tribal groups.
• Right to Protect and Conserve:
  • Forest communities can regenerate, conserve, and manage their traditional forest resources.
• Development Rights:
  • Forest land diversion allowed for public utilities (schools, health centers, roads, etc.) with Gram Sabha approval.

Institutional Framework for Implementation

Implementation Challenges

• Low awareness among forest dwellers about their rights.
• Wrongful rejections of claims due to poor verification.
• Overlapping laws: Conflicts with PESA Act, Indian Forest Act, JFM (Joint Forest Management).
• Neglect of Community Rights: Only ~4% of recognised titles are community-based.
• Inadequate capacity in MoTA (Ministry of Tribal Affairs) for monitoring implementation.
• Inactive vigilance committees at local levels.

Recent Developments:

• ISFR 2023 linked negative forest cover change partly to FRA implementation.
• Ministry of Tribal Affairs questioned this claim, demanding scientific validation and expressing concern over potential administrative bias.
• Over 150 civil society groups supported MoTA’s objection, arguing that FRA enables rights-based conservation rather than degradation.

New archaeological evidence from two Neolithic cemeteries (4,750–4,500 years ago) on China’s eastern coast reveals that ancient communities may have practiced matrilineal kinship.

Key Findings

Genetic Evidence:

• mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA):
  • Inherited only from mothers.
  • Uniform mtDNA across individuals within each cemetery indicated common maternal ancestry.
  • Different mtDNA between cemeteries confirmed distinct matrilineal clans.
• Y-chromosome DNA:
  • Inherited only from fathers to sons.
  • Y-DNA was highly diverse, indicating non-paternal lineage focus in burial practices.

Isotopic Evidence:

• Strontium isotope ratios (??Sr/??Sr):
  • Found in teeth and bones; matched with local soils ? individuals were non-migratory.
• Carbon isotope ratios (¹³C/¹²C):
  • Diet was primarily millet-based agriculture, with pig domestication.
  • No dietary distinction between males and females ? equal food access.

Significance

• Contradicts the assumption that ancient societies were exclusively patriarchal.
• Provides rare concrete evidence of matrilineal social organization in prehistoric times.
• Demonstrates the role of DNA and isotope analysis in reconstructing ancient social, dietary, and migratory patterns.

Examples of Other Matrilineal Societies:

• Chaco Canyon Civilization, North America (800–1300 BCE)
• Certain Celtic Communities, Germany (616–200 BCE)

India's nuclear energy programme achieved a key milestone as the AERB granted a five-year operational licence to NPCIL for Units 3 and 4 of Kakrapar Atomic Power Station—India's first indigenously developed 700 MWe PHWRs.

Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)

• A Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) is a nuclear reactor using natural uranium as fuel and heavy water (D?O) as both moderator and coolant.
• Heavy Water Role: Deuterium (²H) in heavy water slows down neutrons without absorbing them—essential for fission in natural uranium.

Key Technical Features

• Fuel: Natural uranium (U-238 and U-235); does not require enrichment.
• Moderator/Coolant: Heavy water (D?O) used for both neutron moderation and heat transfer.
• Design: Based on pressure tubes instead of a large pressure vessel (used in LWRs).
• Heat Transfer Mechanism: Fission heat is transferred to a secondary loop to generate steam and drive turbines.

Working Principle

• Chain Reaction: Neutrons are slowed by heavy water, enabling sustained fission in U-235.
• Heat Generation: Resultant heat is absorbed by circulating heavy water.
• Electricity Production: Heat is exchanged in a secondary circuit to produce steam for turbine-driven electricity generation.

Advantages of PHWRs

• Use of Natural Uranium: Avoids costs and logistics of uranium enrichment.
• Online Refueling Capability: Can be refueled without shutdown, increasing reactor uptime.
• Fuel Versatility: Can operate using MOX fuel or thorium, supporting India’s thorium-based energy roadmap.
• Economical Long-Term: Though heavy water is expensive, low fuel costs and efficient operation make it cost-effective over time.

Disadvantages

• Heavy Water Cost: High cost for production, storage, and maintenance.
• Design Complexity: Pressure tubes are prone to stress corrosion, requiring periodic inspection and replacement.
• Safety Challenges: Although robust, pressure tube rupture poses a safety concern if not properly managed.

Global Deployment

• India: Global leader in indigenous PHWR technology (e.g., Kakrapar 700 MWe reactors).
• Canada: Developer of the CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium) PHWR design.
• Other Countries: PHWR/CANDU variants used by Argentina, China, and South Korea.

In July 2025, India formally acknowledged China’s direct military and technological support to Pakistan during Operation Sindoor (May 7–10), marking a significant escalation in the China-Pakistan nexus. This unprecedented battlefield collusion represents a strategic shift in regional security dynamics and challenges India’s conventional deterrence framework.

Geostrategic and Diplomatic Collusion

• Direct Military Enabling by China: Unlike earlier India–Pakistan conflicts (1965, 1971, and 1999), China’s role evolved from passive diplomatic support to active military enablement. This included real-time ISR assistance, battlefield technology integration, and coordinated strategic inputs that directly enhanced Pakistan’s combat readiness and operational decision-making.
• Diplomatic Positioning Aligned with Pakistan: China refrained from immediately condemning the Pahalgam terror attack (April 22, 2025), delaying its official response. Its subsequent statements echoed Pakistan’s narrative, referring to India’s retaliatory strikes as “regrettable” and acknowledging Islamabad’s “security concerns”, thereby undermining the legitimacy of India’s counter-terror operations.
• Propaganda and Perception Management: Chinese state-affiliated media and digital platforms engaged in active psychological warfare, reinforcing Pakistan's claims of operational success. They downplayed the severity of the initial terror attack, exaggerated Indian losses, and portrayed India’s response as escalatory, indicating synchronised information warfare strategies.

Operational Integration and Technological Interoperability

• Deployment of Chinese-Origin Military Platforms: Pakistan deployed Chinese-origin J-10C fighter aircraft equipped with PL-15 beyond-visual-range missiles, along with HQ-9 air defence systems, during Operation Sindoor. This was the first-ever real combat use of these platforms, which had been refined through extensive bilateral exercises over the years.
• ISR and Satellite-Based Coordination: Real-time data and targeting assistance were provided through Chinese ISR systems and the BeiDou satellite navigation network, enhancing Pakistan’s missile accuracy and battlefield awareness. Reports suggest even civilian maritime assets were leveraged to monitor Indian naval activities, demonstrating non-traditional surveillance support.
• Multi-Origin Platform Integration via Chinese Systems: Pakistan successfully fused its Swedish-origin airborne early warning and control systems with Chinese surveillance infrastructure. This seamless interoperability across diverse platforms, enabled largely by Chinese protocols, reflects a matured level of tactical and systems integration.

Strategic Implications and Policy Recommendations

• One-Front Reinforced War as the Emerging Paradigm: The conventional doctrine of a “two-front war” has now transformed into a more immediate challenge of a “one-front reinforced war”, where Pakistan remains the principal aggressor with direct but non-overt Chinese military reinforcement. The collapse of the 2021 ceasefire understanding along the western front, along with continued military deployments in the north, has necessitated dual-front strategic readiness.
• Urgency for Doctrinal and Capability Enhancement: Pakistan’s ongoing procurement of cutting-edge Chinese military assets—including fifth-generation stealth aircraft, airborne surveillance systems, and missile defence platforms—indicates deepening defence ties. India must accelerate investments in ISR capabilities, drone warfare, electronic warfare, and network-centric operations to retain strategic parity.
• Strategic Signalling and Policy Realignment: India’s diplomatic strategy must now reflect the strategic reality of China’s operational complicity in Pakistan’s military adventurism. Strategic levers such as review of water-sharing treaties or non-kinetic punitive mechanisms can serve as calibrated responses. Moreover, greater unpredictability in India’s retaliatory posture will help deter adversarial collusion and avoid falling into operational traps set by a coordinated adversary.

"The 2025 Operation Sindoor marked a decisive shift in the strategic convergence of China and Pakistan in both conventional and grey-zone warfare. Examine the implications of this convergence for India’s defence posture and diplomatic engagement strategies."   (250 words)

In July 2025, U.S. consulates resumed student visa interviews following a temporary freeze due to the rollout of an extended vetting programme. This development comes amid rising policy restrictions under the Trump administration that threaten to deter Indian student inflow, including changes to visa duration, post-study work rights, and university scrutiny.

Extended Vetting and Delays in Visa Processing

• Launch of Extended Vetting Programme:The U.S. introduced social media background checks as part of enhanced security screening, leading to a freeze in fresh visa interview appointments for nearly a month.
• Rising Processing Backlogs Near Academic Deadlines: With classes commencing by late August or early September, the continued backlog and over one-month wait time jeopardise timely travel for many Indian students.
• Wider Disruptions Beyond Vetting Procedures: Delays are symptomatic of a broader trend, with additional factors such as policy uncertainty and funding cuts causing systemic disruption to Indian student mobility.

Structural U.S. Policy Changes Affecting Indian Students

• Proposed Termination of Optional Practical Training (OPT): The U.S. administration has proposed ending the OPT programme, which currently serves as a critical pathway for Indian students to gain work experience and transition to H-1B visas or green cards.
• Introduction of Fixed-Tenure Student Visas: Plans to implement fixed-duration visas undermine academic flexibility and reduce the appeal of U.S. higher education, especially for research-based and long-duration programs.
• Funding Cuts and Admission Withdrawals: Federal spending reductions in higher education have led to rescinding of PhD admissions for Indian students, signaling a decline in academic inclusivity and research opportunities.

Strategic, Institutional, and Diplomatic Implications

• Increased Scrutiny of Indian Students and Institutions: There is anecdotal evidence of a drop in visa issuances and intensified scrutiny of the academic rankings of admitting institutions, affecting Tier-II and Tier-III aspirants disproportionately.
• Diminishing Role of Tech Industry in Immigration Advocacy: The reduced influence of tech sector leadership, historically supportive of skilled immigration, has further eroded the moderating forces within the U.S. immigration policy framework.
• Strategic Realignment of India’s Global Talent Flows: The cumulative impact of these policy shifts may force India to reassess its educational diplomacy and talent mobility strategy, possibly diversifying toward Europe, Australia, and East Asia.

Practice Question:

"The evolving U.S. immigration and visa framework poses significant challenges to India’s outbound student mobility and knowledge economy. Critically examine the implications of recent American policy shifts on India’s higher education aspirations and global talent strategy."

In July 2025, India undertook a significant diplomatic outreach to the Global South, with high-level bilateral visits to Ghana, Trinidad and Tobago, and Argentina, ahead of the BRICS Summit in Brazil. The agenda focused on pharmaceutical cooperation, critical minerals, digital technology, and South-South solidarity, underlining India’s commitment to a more equitable global order.

Sectoral Cooperation and Bilateral Upgrades

• India-Ghana Ties Elevated to Comprehensive Partnership: In Accra, India committed to assisting Ghana in becoming a “vaccine hub” for West Africa, highlighting collaboration in pharmaceuticals, healthcare delivery, and bio-manufacturing.
• Strengthening Health Systems in Trinidad and Tobago: A major MoU was signed on Indian pharmacopeia standards, aimed at expanding access to affordable, high-quality Indian generic medicines in the Caribbean region.
• Resource and Energy Cooperation with Argentina: India advanced cooperation with Argentina on critical minerals (especially lithium) and access to shale gas and oil, aligning energy security with mineral diplomacy.

Global South Focus and Multilateral Signalling

• Promotion of India-Led Multilateral Initiatives: India promoted platforms like the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) and International Solar Alliance (ISA) as low-cost, scalable solutions for Global South challenges.
• BRICS and IBSA as South-South Cooperation Anchors: India’s outreach reinforces its foundational role in multilateral blocs like BRICS and IBSA, which aim to re-balance the global governance framework in favour of the Global South.
• Shared Colonial Histories and Non-Aligned Legacy: Common experiences of colonial subjugation and participation in the Non-Aligned Movement form the historical basis for continued collaboration on equity, sovereignty, and development.

Diaspora Engagement and Geopolitical Balancing

• Reaffirmation of Diaspora as a Strategic Asset: India deepened its cultural diplomacy in Trinidad and Tobago by acknowledging the contributions of the Indian diaspora, particularly descendants of 19th-century indentured labourers.
• Engagement Despite Divergences on Global Conflicts: India continues strong bilateral relations with these nations despite differing views on Ukraine and Gaza, reflecting maturity in issue-based diplomacy.
• Vision for a More Inclusive Global Order: The overall strategic vision is to challenge the inequities of the existing international system by building alternative mechanisms that reflect developing countries’ interests.

Practice Question:

“India’s recent outreach to the Global South signals a shift in diplomatic emphasis from reactive diplomacy to proactive strategic engagement.” Examine this shift in the context of bilateral and multilateral developments in 2025.         (250 words)